Cellobiose dehydrogenase

ABSTRACT

The present invention relates to cellobiose dehydrogenases (CDH) having glucose oxidation activity at a pH of 7.4 or above, modifications to modify the pH dependency of the enzymes activity, uses for these CDHs, in particular electrode sensors and electrochemical cells.

This application is a national phase application under 35 U.S.C. §371 of International Application No. PCT/EP2010/052488 filed 26 Feb. 2010, which claims priority to European Application No. 09153889.2 filed 27 Feb. 2009. The entire text of each of the above-referenced disclosures is specifically incorporated herein by reference without disclaimer.

The present invention relates to cellobiose dehydrogenase (CDH) enzymes, modifications thereof and electrochemical uses.

Cellobiose dehydrogenase (EC 1.1.99.18, CDH) was first discovered 1974 in the extracellular enzyme system of Phanerochaete chrysosporium and later on in several other basidiomycete fungi. A special characteristic of this enzyme is its composition: the combination of a catalytically active flavin domain, hosting a non-covalently bound FAD, and a haem domain, with a haem b as a cofactor. Both domains are connected by a flexible linker. By its catalytic activity the natural substrate cellobiose is oxidised in a reaction which reduces the FAD of the flavin domain. Subsequently, FAD can be reoxidised by the action of the haem domain. The spectral characteristics of a typical CDH clearly show the presence of both cofactors. Another characteristic described is the strong glucose discrimination of all well characterised enzymes. Until the discovery of the ascomycete fungus Myriococcum thermophilum (Stoica et al., 2005, Biosensors and Bioelectronics 20: 2010-2018; Harreither et al., 2007, Electroanalysis 19: 172-180), CDH was believed to strongly inhibit the conversion of glucose (Henriksson et al., 1998, Biochimica Biophysica Acta 1383: 48-54). Similarly, for a long time only CDHs exhibiting an acidic activity optimum were known, especially when the haem domain is involved in catalysis as it depends on intramolecular electron transfer (IET), which is necessary to transfer electrons via the haem to the electron acceptor. This is the case with cytochrome c in enzymatic assays, as well as on electrode surfaces where the haem domain enables direct electron transfer (DET) to the electrode.

Electrochemical applications described in the literature are the detection of cellobiose, cello-oligosaccharides, lactose and maltose soluble cellodextrins, ortho- and para-diphenolic compounds (Lindgren et al., 1999, Analyst 124: 527-532) and catecholamines (Stoica et al., 2004, Analytical Chemistry, 76: 4690-4696) mostly by mediated electron transfer (MET). So far the application in glucose biosensors based on the direct electron transfer (DET) properties of CDH was prevented by i) a very low or no glucose turnover, ii) the acidic pH optimum of most known CDHs and iii) a bad performance of some CDHs on electrodes.

Although, one CDH with well functioning IET at neutral or alkaline pH values is known (from the fungus Humicola insolens), it was shown not to convert glucose (Schou et al., 1998, Biochemical Journal 330: 565-571). One CDH currently known to convert glucose with significant turnover numbers was found in cultures of Myriococcum thermophilum (Harreither et al., 2007, Electroanalysis 19: 172-180). However, this enzyme has an acidic pH optimum for the IET and shows no activity under physiological pH conditions (pH 7.4). Another obstruction is the sometimes bad electronic communication of a CDH with an electrode surface, like the Humicola insolens and Sclerotium rolfsii CDHs (Lindgren et al., 2001, Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry 496: 76-81), which results in very low current densities and therefore low signals even with the natural substrate cellobiose.

Harreither et al. (Electroanalysis, 19 (2-3) (2007): 172-180) disclose CDH direct electron transfer activity assays measured on an electrode. Activity at different pH values was determined with lactose or cellobiose as substrates. Although, glucose is accepted as a substrate at the pH optimum no information of the CDH activity on glucose at pH 7.4 is given. As is shown in the comparative examples herein, the activity of wild type CDH of M. thermophilum steeply decreases at neutral pH values above pH 5.5 and has no activity on glucose at pH 7.4.

Zamocky et al. (Prot. Expr. Pur. Acad. Press; 59 (2) (2007): 258-265) discloses the wild type M. thermophilum CDH and its DCIP activity when using citrate as substrate. The DCIP activity does not relate to the IEP activity of the catalysis of carbohydrate oxidation reactions on an electrode.

Database UniProt, Acc. No. A9XK88 discloses the wild type CDH sequence of M. thermophilum.

U.S. Pat. No. 6,033,891 A discloses a CDH of Humicola insolens which does not have a glucose oxidating activity.

Database EMBL, Acc. No. AF074951, AAY82220 and AAZ95701 provide sequences of the CDH from Thielavia heterothallica. This enzyme does not have an activity on glucose at pH 7.4.

Zamocky et al. (Current protein and peptide science, 7 (3) (2006); 255-280) provide a review of CDHs of basidomycetes and ascomycetes.

Thus CDH activity on glucose under neutral conditions, which is necessary for applications in e.g. physiological fluids is not satisfying, in particular not for the electro-chemical measurement of glucose or the generation of electricity in biofuel cells. It is therefore a goal of the present invention to provide an alternative enzyme suitable to convert glucose at physiological pH ranges, in particular on DET-based electrodes.

Therefore, in a first embodiment the present invention provides a CDH having glucose oxidation activity at a pH of 7.4 or above, selected from a CDH isolated from Chaetomium atrobrunneum, Corynascus thermophiles, Hypoxylon haematostroma, Neurospora crassa or Stachybotris bisbyi or being a modified CDH of Myriococcum thermophilum. According to the invention it has been surprisingly found that certain CDHs have a suitable glucose oxidising activity under physiological pH conditions. Furthermore, the invention provides the modification of acidic CDHs to increase their activity at pH 7.4 and above.

The term “cellobiose dehydrogenase” is defined herein as an enzyme consisting of a flavin domain and a haem domain connected by a peptide linker, which oxidises carbohydrates like its natural substrates cellobiose and cello-oligosaccharides and others like lactose, maltose and in particular glucose for preferred inventive uses. The reoxidation of the flavin domain cofactor can be achieved by direct oxidation by two-electron acceptors including quinones like 2,6-dichloroindophenol, o- or p-benzoquinone or derivatives thereof, methylene blue, methylene green, Meldola's blue or one-electron acceptors like potassium ferricyanide, ferricenium hexafluorophosphate, FeCl₃ or by intramolecular electron transfer (IET) to the haem domain cofactor and further to a terminal electron acceptor like cytochrome c (cyt c) or an electrode surface.

The flavin domain of the CDH, which is responsible for the glucose oxidation activity and the haem domain, responsible for the regeneration of the flavin domain, may have two different pH optima, such as in the case of the natural CDH of Myriococcum thermophilum. In principle, the haem domain can be bypassed by providing the flavin domain with oxidants such as 2,6-dichloroindophenol which can directly reoxidise the flavin domain without the haem domain. According to the present invention, however, it should be understand that the CDH has a glucose oxidation activity at a pH of 7.4 by the action of both the flavin and the haem domain (IET) as can e.g. be measured by the cyt c assay or by measurement after immobilisation on an electrode surface (DET—direct electron transfer—to the electrode). The haem domain acts as intermediate electron transmitter between cyt c and the flavin domain or between the electrode surface and the flavin domain, respectively.

The natural, wild-type CDH of M. thermophilum does not have the inventive glucose oxidation activity at a pH of 7.4 by action of both the flavin and the haem domain. The present invention has now for the first time provided a modification of the CDH of M. thermophilum which has the desired glucose oxidation activity. This modification according to the present invention should now be understood in that the inventive M. thermophilum CDH deviates from the wild-type M. thermophilum CDH by the substantially increased glucose oxidation activity at a pH of 7.4. This modification can be facilitated by increasing the interaction between the flavin and the haem domains, e.g. by modifying specific key amino acids responsible for that interaction as is further described herein. Preferably increasing the interaction includes increasing contacts or interaction energy between the domains. A prediction of such modifications can be easily made by computational methods using e.g. force field based energy calculations. Furthermore, the interaction can be determined by measuring protein activity as described herein. Furthermore, it is possible to increase the pH dependency of the haem domain to a more basic pH. The pH optimum of the flavin domain of the natural CDH of M. thermophilum could in principle have the required pH properties to oxidise glucose, as is e.g. shown in FIG. 2 f (by measurement of the 2,6-dichloroindophenol (DCIP) assay).

Also provided are enzyme preparations comprising novel CDHs. The term “enzyme” or “enzyme preparation” as used herein refers to a cellobiose dehydrogenase from a specified organism which is at least about 20% pure, preferably at least about 40% pure, even more preferably at least about 60% pure, even more preferably at least 80% pure and most preferably at least 90% pure as determined by polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE).

The present invention relates to cellobiose dehydrogenases isolated from novel producers or genetically engineered from existing protein scaffolds, which are able to oxidise glucose more efficiently than the currently known cellobiose dehydrogenases. The kinetic constants of the enzymes responsible for this effect are a preferably lower K_(M) value and a higher k_(cat) value for glucose than the currently characterised enzymes (e.g., Phanerochaete chrysosporium CDH: K_(M)=1600 mM, k_(cat)=2.64 s⁻¹, Henriksson et al., 1998, Biochimica and Biophysica Acta 1383: 48-54; Humicola insolens CDH: no glucose conversion detected, Schou et al., 1998, Biochemical Journal 330: 565-571; Trametes villosa CDH: K_(M)=1300 mM, k_(cat)=1.92 s⁻¹, Ludwig et al., 2004, Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology 64: 213-222). In addition, the k_(m) and k_(cat) values for glucose oxidation of the inventive enzymes shall be at a pH of 7.4.

In a further aspect the present invention provides a cellobiose dehydrogenase of SEQ ID NO: 5 (Chaetomium atrobrunneum), SEQ ID NO: 7 (Corynascus thermophilum), SEQ ID NO: 3 (Hypoxylon haematostroma), SEQ ID NO: 11 (Neurospora crassa) and SEQ ID NO: 9 (Stachybotrys bisbyi). Furthermore homologuous enzymes are provided having glucose oxidation activity at a pH of 7.4 or above comprising an amino acid sequence being at least 50%, preferably at least 55%, at least 60%, at least 65%, at least 70%, at least 75%, at least 80%, at least 85%, at least 90%, at least 95%, at least 98%, in particular preferred at least 99%, identical to any one of SEQ ID NO: 3, SEQ ID NO: 5 or SEQ ID NO: 7, SEQ ID NO: 9 or SEQ ID NO: 11.

In preferred embodiments the CDH of Chaetomium atrobrunneum comprises an amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 5. The CDH is readily available from C. atrobrunneum using the isolation methods described herein. In a further related aspect the present invention also provides a CDH comprising an amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 5, or an amino acid sequence being at least 83%, preferably at least 85%, at least 88%, at least 90%, at least 92%, at least 93%, at least 94%, at least 95%, at least 96%, at least 97%, at least 98%, in particular preferred at least 99%, identical to SEQ ID NO: 5.

In preferred embodiments the CDH of Corynascus thermophilum comprises an amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 7. The CDH is readily available from C. thermophilum using the isolation methods described herein. In a further related aspect the present invention also provides a CDH comprising an amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 7, or an amino acid sequence being at least 76%, preferably at least 78%, at least 80%, at least 83%, at least 85%, at least 88%, at least 90%, at least 92%, at least 94%, at least 95%, at least 98%, in particular preferred at least 99%, identical to SEQ ID NO: 7.

In preferred embodiments the CDH of Hypoxylon haematostroma comprises an amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 3. The CDH is readily available from H. haematostroma using the isolation methods described herein. In a further related aspect the present invention also provides a CDH comprising an amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 3, or an amino acid sequence being at least 68%, preferably at least 70%, at least 72%, at least 74%, at least 76%, at least 78%, at least 80%, at least 80%, at least 83%, at least 85%, at least 88%, at least 90%, at least 95%, at least 98%, in particular preferred at least 99%, identical to SEQ ID NO: 3.

In preferred embodiments the CDH of Neurospora crassa comprises an amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 11. The CDH is readily available from N. crassa using the isolation methods described herein. In a further related aspect the present invention also provides a CDH comprising an amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 11, or an amino acid sequence being at least 72%, preferably at least 74%, at least 76%, at least 78%, at least 80%, at least 82%, at least 84%, at least 86%, at least 88%, at least 90%, at least 92%, at least 95%, at least 98%, in particular preferred at least 99%, identical to SEQ ID NO: 11.

In preferred embodiments the CDH of Stachybotrys bisbyi comprises an amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 9. The CDH is readily available from S. bisbyi using the isolation methods described herein. In a further related aspect the present invention also provides a CDH comprising an amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 9, or an amino acid sequence being at least 59%, preferably at least 60%, at least 62%, at least 65%, at least 70%, at least 72%, preferably at least 74%, at least 76%, at least 78%, at least 80%, at least 82%, at least 84%, at least 86%, at least 88%, at least 90%, at least 95%, at least 98%, in particular preferred at least 99%, identical to SEQ ID NO: 9.

Preferably, a homologous or modified CDH of has 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, at least 11, at last 13, at least 15, at least 17, at least 20, at least 25, at least 30, at least 40, at least 50, at least 60, at least 80, at least 100 and/or up to 100, up to 80, up to 60, up to 50, up to 40, up to 30, up to 30, up to 20, up to 15 amino acid substitutions, deletions, insertions or modifications, and any ranges between these values, as compared to any one of the CDHs of SEQ ID NOs 3, 5, 7, 9 or 11.

The present invention provides novel sequences of CDHs from Chaetomium atrobrunneum (SEQ ID NO: 5), Corynascus thermophilum (SEQ ID NO: 7), Hypoxylon haematostroma (SEQ ID NO: 3), Neurospora crassa (SEQ ID NO: 11) and Stachybotrys bisbyi (SEQ ID NO: 9). The CDHs of these sequences, as well as homologues with at least 50% sequence identity thereto are novel CDHs which also fulfill the inventive properties of having a glucose oxidation activity at a pH of 7.4. The modification of homologuous enzymes thereto with at least 50% sequence identity are preferably of amino acids which do not lower the pH requirement on the glucose oxidation activity. Any such modification can easily be tested by a glucose oxidation test on e.g. an electrode surface or by a cyt c assay, using cyt c to reoxidise the haem and subsequently the flavin domain of the CDH. Homologues can be readily identified by sequence comparisons such as by sequence alignment using publicly available tools, such as BLASTP.

The inventive CDH may be a modified CDH of Myriococcum thermophilum, comprising a flavin and a haem domain, wherein electron transfer from the flavin to the haem domain is increased as compared to wild type CDH of M. thermophilum, preferably as measured by the cyt c assay. Thus the invention relates to genetic engineering of a CDH to improve the enzymes activity further in the direction of high IET under neutral or alkaline pH conditions. The methods for the modification may be any known in the art such as amino acid mutations, including amino acid substitutions, deletions or additions but also chemical modification/derivatisation of amino acid side chains, in particular acidic amino acid side chains.

As mentioned above, the invention includes homologuous sequences to the inventive CDHs of SEQ ID NOs 1 (M. thermophilum—with further modifications to improve the pH dependency as mentioned above), SEQ ID Nos. 3, 5, 7, 9 or 11 with at least 50%, preferably at least 55%, at least 60%, at least 65%, at least 70%, at least 75%, at least 80%, at least 85%, preferably at least 90%, at least 95%, at least 98%, or at least 99%, sequence identity to the above sequences of SEQ ID NOs 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, or 11. Preferably the catalytic site has a minimum of modifications of e.g. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 or 10 amino acid deletions, substitutions or additions or is even exempted from modifications as compared to the wild type catalytic sites. The catalytic site is from Phe 251 to Ala 287 (Rossman Fold, flavin binding), Val 334 to Leu 345 and Met 724 to Asp 732 of the M. thermophilum sequence of SEQ ID NO: 1. Corresponding amino acids also exist for the CDHs of Chaetomium atrobrunneum (SEQ ID NO: 5), Corynascus thermophilum (SEQ ID NO: 7), Hypoxylon haematostroma (SEQ ID NO: 3), Neurospora crassa (SEQ ID NO: 11) and Stachybotrys bisbyi (SEQ ID NO: 9).

Preferably any one of the inventive CDHs shows IET (the transfer from electrons from the flavin to the haem domain) under neutral, alkaline or preferentially physiological (pH 7.4) pH conditions. To ensure a sufficiently high electrocatalytic activity of the enzyme under those conditions the IET as measured with the cyt c assay at pH 7.4 should be at least about 10% of the value maximum IET value measured under acidic pH conditions, or more preferably about 20%, or more preferably about 40%, or more preferably about 60%, or even more preferably about 80%, or most preferably should the pH optimum of IET be already neutral or alkaline.

The cellobiose dehydrogenases show preferably a sufficiently high direct electron transfer (DET) rate from the enzyme to the electrode to obtain a sufficiently high response at low substrate concentrations for a low detection limit and a high sensitivity. Only enzymes exhibiting high enough a DET current at the applied overpotential of +300 mV vs. Ag|AgCl (in 0.1 M KCl) to result in a detection limit of glucose (the lower limit of the linear range of the electrode was defined as the detection limit) with a spectrographic graphite electrode setup below 4 mM (the usual blood glucose concentration in a healthy human is 4-7 mM).

Preferably, the inventive CDH has an glucose oxidation activity at a pH of 7.4 or above and comprises an amino acid sequence of amino acids 22 to 828 of SEQ ID NO: 1 or an amino acid sequence being at least 50%, preferably at least 55%, at least 60%, at least 65%, at least 70%, at least 75%, at least 80%, at least 85%, at least 90%, at least 94%, at least 95%, at least 96%, at least 98%, in particular preferred at least 99%, identical to amino acids 22 to 828 of SEQ ID NO: 1, characterised in that the amino acid sequence has at least one additional amino acid substitution, deletion or insertion to the sequence of SEQ ID NO:1 increasing electron transfer from the flavin to the haem domain as compared to wild type CDH of Myriococcum thermophilum of SEQ ID NO:1, preferably as measured by the cyt c assay. Given in SEQ ID NO: 1 is the wild type M. thermophilum CDH which does not have the required glucose oxidation activity at a pH of 7.4. The sequence of SEQ ID NO: 1 has further a signal peptide up to amino acid 21 which may not be present on the final processed enzyme. It could now be shown that according to the present invention by a single (or more) amino acid substitution, deletion or insertion of the CDH with the final M. thermophilum CDH sequence the pH optimum of the glucose oxidation activity can be shifted to a more basic pH, in particular to a physiologically relevant pH of 7.4. Those skilled in the art can readily chose from possible amino acid modifications given the extensive sequence and functional information depicted herein and furthermore, can without undue burden test the modified CDH by a simple cyt c assay as described herein. Preferably, the inventive modified CDH of M. thermophilum has 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, at least 11, at last 13, at least 15, at least 17, at least 20, at least 25, at least 30, at least 40, at least 50, at least 60, at least 80, at least 100 and/or up to 100, up to 80, up to 60, up to 50, up to 40, up to 30, up to 30, up to 20, up to 15 amino acid substitutions, deletions, insertions or modifications, and any ranges between these values.

In a further embodiment the electron transfer of the modified CDH is increased by increasing electrostatic interaction between the flavin and the haem domain, preferably at a pH of 7.4. The electrostatic interaction can be increased by optimising charge interactions at pH 7.4 of basic and acidic amino acids of the flavin and haem domain by site-directed mutagenesis, electrostatic repulsion can be reduced or electrostatic attraction increased. From the available sequence and structural information those skilled in the art can readily chose from a vast amount of such possible mutations which increase the interaction at pH 7.4, and preferably results in an increased activity in a cyt c assay.

As has been pointed out, the intramolecular electron transfer (IET) rate between the flavin domain and the haem domain depends heavily on the pH. E.g. in the basidiomycete Trametes villosa CDH IET is fast at pH 3.5, slows down significantly at pH 5.0, and is virtually absent above pH 6.0. Contrary, the IET of the ascomycete H. insolens CDH is not affected by alkaline conditions, having a pH optimum of around 8.0. From the kinetic data of Humicola insolens CDH an alkaline pH optimum for cyt c reduction is obvious and the DET measured for that enzyme was highest at pH>7 and is thus an exception so far for CDHs. Interestingly, although an ascomycete CDH, Myriococcum thermophilum CDH has an IET behaviour similar to basidiomycete enzymes. Preferably, the above amino acids are modified in the M. thermophilum CDH to increase the activity at a pH of 7.4 as measured in a cyt c assay. Furthermore it has been found that these amino acids are of particular interest for the activity of the enzyme. Amino acids corresponding to these amino acids in CDHs of Chaetomium atrobrunneum, Corynascus thermophiles, Hypoxylon haematostroma, Neurospora crassa or Stachybotris bisbyi with preferably modifications, according to the homologues to the sequences of the SEQ IDs NO: 3, 5, 7, 9 and 11 in other amino acids than in those corresponding to the above amino acids of Myriococcum thermophilum of SEQ ID NO: 1.

The changes in the above mentioned amino acids of SEQ ID NO: 1 in order to increase the activity at pH 7.4 are preferably to increase electrostactic interaction between the flavin and the haem domain as mentioned above.

In particular preferred embodiments the modification of the CDH is a modification of the haem domain of any one of amino acids 90-100, 115-124, 172-203, preferably of any one of amino acids 176, 179-182, 195, 196, 198, 201 corresponding to the M. thermophilum CDH of SEQ ID NO: 1 and/or of the flavin domain of any one of amino acids 311-333, 565-577, 623-625, 653-664, 696-723, preferably of any one of amino acids 318, 325, 326, 328, 568, 571, 574, 575, 624, 654, 663, 702, 709, 712, 717, correspond to the M. thermophilum CDH of SEQ ID NO: 1, or any combination thereof.

Possible modifications include (i) the exchange of acidic amino acids by neutral (polar or apolar) residues (e.g. Ser, Thr, Ala) to decrease the number of negative charges and weaken the electrostatic force field at either the haem or the flavin domain at neutral/alkaline pH values. (ii) The exchange of acidic amino acids by alkaline residues (Lys, Arg) to increase the number of positive charges and weaken the electrostatic force field at either the haem or the flavin domain at neutral/alkaline pH values, and (iii) the introduction of alkaline residues (Lys, Arg) instead of neutral residues (Hydrophobic or hydrophilic) to increase the number of positive charges and weaken the negative electrostatic force field at neutral/alkaline pH.

Particularly the modification may include an increase of positive charge in the of amino acids 172-203 corresponding to the M. thermophilum CDH of SEQ ID NO: 1, preferably of amino acid 181, in particular preferred a D181K mutation or D181R, and/or preferably of amino acid 198, in particular preferred a D198K or D198N mutation, and/or a decrease of a negative charge of amino acids 565-577 corresponding to the M. thermophilum CDH of SEQ ID NO: 1, preferably of amino acid(s) 568 and/or 571 and/or 574, in particular preferred a D568S and/or E571S mutation and/or D574S mutation, or any combination thereof, in particular the triple mutation D568S/E571S/D574S.

In further embodiments the activity of the inventive CDH is a glucose dehydrogenase activity and may be an electrocatalytic oxidation of glucose.

The inventive CDH may be isolated, in particular from Chaetomium atrobrunneum, Corynascus thermophiles, Hypoxylon haematostroma, Neurospora crassa or Stachybotris bisbyi or any genetically modified cell to recombinantly express the inventive CDH. Isolation may be performed by diafiltration and subsequent ion exchange chromatography by collecting fractions with CDH activity. The CDH can be further purified, e.g. using hydrophobic interaction chromatography.

The inventive CDH may also comprise a linker or be a part of a fusion protein. An inventive CDH polypeptide comprising the inventive sequences may be up to 500 kDa, up to 400 kDa, up to 300 kDa, up to 200 kDa or even up to 150 kDa.

In another aspect the present invention provide a nucleic acid molecule encoding a CDH of the invention. A preferred embodiment of the invention is a nucleic acid molecule encoding a cellobiose dehydrogenase having glucose oxidation activity at a pH of 7.4 or above and comprising a

-   -   nucleotide sequence of SEQ ID NOs 4, 6, 8, 10 or 12, or     -   the open reading frame of SEQ ID NOs 4, 6, 8, 10 or 12 or     -   a nucleotide sequence with at least 50%, preferably at least         55%, at least 60%, at least 65%, at least 70%, at least 75%, at         least 80%, at least 85%, at least 90%, at least 95%, at least         98%, in particular preferred at least 99%, identity to SEQ ID         NO: 2, 33, 4, 6, 8, 10 or 12 or the open reading frame of SEQ ID         NOs: 2, 33, 4, 6, 8, 10 or 12, further comprising a nucleotide         mutation, substitution, deletion or insertion, preferably a         codon mutation, substitution, deletion or insertion,         -   a nucleotide sequence that hybridizes with any one of SEQ ID             NO: 2, 33, 4, 6, 8, 10 or 12 under stringent condition.             “Stringent conditions” relate to hybridisation reactions             under defined hybridisation conditions which is a function             of factors as concentration of salt or formamide in the             hybridisation buffer, the temperature of the hybridisation             and the posthybridisation wash conditions. Such conditions             are for example hybridisation at 68° C. in a standard SSC             hybridisation buffer containing 0.1% SDS followed by             stringent washing in wash buffer at the same temperature.             Stringent washing can be performed for example by two times             washing with 2×SSC buffer followed by two wash steps with             0.5×SSC buffer. Stringent hybridisation conditions will             preferably involve a temperature of 15° C. to 25° C. below             the melting temperature (Tm), whereby the Tm of a             hybridisation product of a nucleic acid probe can be             calculated using a formula based on the g+c contained in the             nucleic acids and that takes chain lengths into account,             such as the formula Tm=81.5 to 16.6 (log [n⁺])+0.41 (%             G+C)−600/N), wherein N=chain length (Sambrook et al. (1989),             which is incorporated herein by reference). In practice an             estimated Tm for an oligonucleotide probe is often confirmed             and thus a person skilled in the art can calculate the Tm             for any chosen probe whose nucleotide sequence is known.

A nucleic acid sequence of M. thermophilum may be defined by the SEQ ID NO: 2 or 33 or the open reading frame of SEQ ID NO: 2 or 33, including homologs with at least 50%, preferably at least 55%, at least 60%, at least 65%, at least 70%, at least 75%, at least 80%, at least 85%, at least 90%, at least 95%, at least 98%, in particular preferred at least 99%, identity to SEQ ID NO: 2 or 33 or the open reading frame of SEQ ID NO: 2 or 33, further comprising a codon mutation, substitution, deletion or insertion to encode a CDH with glucose oxidation activity at a pH of 7.4 or above, preferably of amino acids 22 to 828 of SEQ ID NO: 1 with an additional amino acid substitution, deletion or insertion. Preferably the encoded CDH is of the amino acid sequence with the above mentioned amino acid modification.

The inventive nucleic acid molecules encoding a CDH with glucose oxidating activity at pH 7.4 may be isolated or purified. The inventive nucleic acid molecules, in particular their open reading frame may be comprised in a vector, preferably an expression or cloning vector. An inventive nucleotide molecule might further contain regulatory elements such as promotors and enhancers. Such a nucleic acid molecule comprising the inventive sequences may consist of up to 1,000,000 nucleotides, up to 900,000 nucleotides, up to 800,000 nucleotides, up to 700,000 nucleotides, up to 600,000 nucleotides, up to 500,000 nucleotides, up to 400,000 nucleotides, up to 300,000 nucleotides, up to 200,000 nucleotides, up to 100,000 nucleotides, up to 50,000 nucleotides or up to 25,000 nucleotides.

Particular benefits of the inventive CDHs are i) a high glucose turnover rate, ii) sufficient activity of the flavin domain and IET at pH 7.4 and iii) good DET characteristics. It was further found that these CDHs and other known CDHs are in particular suitable as anodic material in a bioelectrode as e.g. biosensor or biofuel cell.

One approach was to identify CDHs of different fungal strains from the phylum of ascomycota. It was found that some CDHs, e.g. from Chaetomium atrobrunneum, Corynascus thermophiles, Hypoxylon haematostroma, Neurospora crassa or Stachybotris bisbyi are able to convert glucose with high turnover rates at pH 7.4 and have additionally very good DET properties. Some of the found CDHs are new per se as mentioned above. A further aspect of the present invention is the use of all CDHs described herein on an electrode, in an electrochemical cell, in particular in a biosensor to measure glucose, preferably at a physiological pH such as pH 7.4.

Furthermore it was found that CDH from M. thermophilum, which is known to oxidise glucose and have good DET properties but shows no IET at pH values above pH 7.0, can be genetically engineered to increase the pH range of the IET to more alkaline conditions by means of site-directed mutagenesis. These CDHs were particularly suitable for electrochemical devices.

Thus, in a further aspect the present invention provides an electrode comprising an immobilised CDH having glucose oxidation activity at a pH of 7.4 or above and having at least 10%, at least 12%, at least 14%, at least 16%, preferably at least 18%, at least 19%, in particular preferred at least 20%, at least 21%, or even at least 22%, at least 23%, at least 24%, at least 25%, at least 26%, at least 27%, at least 28%, at least 29% or at least 30% glucose, lactose or cellobiose oxidising activity at a pH of 7.4 as compared to their maximal activity at a lower pH as determined by the cyt c assay. Preferably the immobilised CDH also has a glucose oxidation activity at a pH of 7.4 or above and having at least 10%, at least 12%, preferably at least 18%, at least 19%, in particular preferred at least 20%, at least 21%, or even at least 22%, at least 23%, at least 24%, at least 25%, at least 26%, at least 27%, at least 28%, at least 29% or at least 30%, glucose, lactose or cellobiose oxidising activity at a pH of 7.4 as compared to their maximal activity at a lower pH as determined by a 2,6-dichloroindophenol (DCIP) assay. An electrode is generally a conducting surface, e.g. suitable for an electro-chemical element.

The activity measurement by either the cyt c or DCIP assay can be readily facilitated in a model system. The CDH can be directly used with the substrate (glucose but also lactose or cellobiose) and a reoxidising agent being either cyt c for reoxidation at the haem domain or DCIP for reoxidation at the flavin domain. The CDH is tested at a pH of 7.4 in any suitable buffer, e.g. a potassium or natrium phosphate buffer. To determine the maximum of the CDH activity, the activity is continuously measured at different pH values, e.g. ranging from pH 3 to pH 7.4 or higher and determining the maximum activity. The pH of 7.4 is then compared with this maximum activity and should have the required activity fraction mentioned above. The activity can e.g. be given as absolute values in U/mg or as relative values. Preferably, the inventive CDH has the required activity portion as compared to the maximum activity in both a cyt c and a DCIP assay. These activity values preferably also apply to the new CDHs described above, as such, independent of their fixation on an electrode. Preferably, the assay to determine the inventive CDH on the electrode is performed by glucose oxidation. Alternatively, also using lactose is possible.

The electrode may be of any material suitable to immobilise the CDH, e.g. carbon such as graphite, glassy carbon, boron doped diamond, gold electrodes modified with promoters e.g., thiols, screen-printed electrodes, screen printed electrodes containing carbon nanotubes (single or multi-walled). It may contain other nanoparticles to increase the specific surface area. Particular uses of the inventive electrodes are in the provision of biosensors and enzymatic biofuel cells, more specifically to glucose biosensors and glucose oxidizing biofuel cell anodes using the direct electron transfer properties (DET) of cellobiose dehydrogenase (CDH) to measure the glucose concentration at neutral, alkaline or, preferentially, physiological pH (in human body fluids, e.g., 7.4 in blood) or use glucose for the generation of an electric current in biofuel cells under the same pH conditions.

In particular preferred embodiments the specific activity for glucose oxidation by using the cyt c assay at pH 7.4 is higher than 0.5 U/mg, preferably at least 0.6 U/mg, at least 0.7 U/mg, at least 0.8 U/mg, at least 0.9 U/mg, at least 1 U/mg, or at least 1.2 U/mg CDH, or a current density higher than 80 nA/cm² at pH 7.4.

In further preferred embodiments the apparent K_(M) value of the CDH for glucose in solution (DCIP assays at optimum activity) is lower than 1.7 M, preferably lower than 1.5, lower than 1.2, preferably lower than 1 M or, when measured on electrodes an apparent K_(M) value below 200 mM, preferably below 150 mM.

In another embodiment the present invention provides an electrode, wherein the CDH is of Chaetomium atrobrunneum, Corynascus thermophilus, Hypoxylon haematostroma, Neurospora crassa or Stachybotris bisbyi or a modified CDH of Myriococcum thermophilum with an increased activity at pH of 7.4 as defined in above, or homologues with certain sequence identities, amino acid modifications, etc. as defined above.

On the electrode, the CDH may be immobilised by adsorption, preferably also physical entrapment, complex formation, preferably via an additional complexing linker, covalent binding, in particular cross linking, or ionic linkage and/or the immobilized cellobiose dehydrogenase can be cross-linked, in particular by bifunctional agents, to increase stability or activity. It has been shown that crosslinking with bifunctional agents, such as agents with two reactive groups making a connection with the CDH, can stabilize the CDH and even increase its activity on graphite electrodes measurable by amperometric methods described herein. This advantage can lead to an increased sensitivity and lowering the detection limit for glucose. Such a cross-linking agent is e.g. glutaraldehyde or any other dialdehydes.

The electrodes might be used in form of a single electrode or electrode stacks. More specifically, the application of these enzymes is in (bio)electrochemical devices such as glucose biosensors or biofuel cells anodes. The electrode may be used as biosensor or as biofuel cell anode.

In another aspect the present invention provides an electro-chemical cell comprising an electrode as described above as an anodic element and a cathodic element.

In preferred embodiments of the electrochemical cell the anodic fluid can be glucose containing solution. Preferably the electrode is suitable for measurement in blood, serum and other body fluids.

The electrochemical cell may further comprise a solution of at least pH 6.0, preferably at least pH 6.5 or at least pH 6.7, in particular preferred at least pH 7.0, even more preferred at least pH 7.1, or at least pH 7.2, or at least pH 7.3, especially preferred at least 7.4, as anodic fluid.

According to another aspect a method of detecting or quanti-fying glucose in a sample is provided comprising

-   -   providing a CDH having glucose oxidation activity at a pH of 7.4         or above,     -   contacting a fluid sample having a pH of at least 6.0,         preferably at least 6.5, or at least 6.7, more preferred at         least 7.0, at least 7.1, at least 7.2, in particular preferred         at least 7.3, especially preferred at least 7.4, with the CDH,         and     -   detecting an oxidation of glucose of the sample by the CDH.

Preferably the oxidation is detected electrochemically, preferably with an immobilised CDH on an electrode, in particular preferred as defined above.

One of the world-wide leading causes of death and disability is diabetes. The diagnosis and management of diabetes mellitus requires continuous monitoring of blood glucose levels. Amperometric enzyme electrodes, based on glucose oxidase, play an increasingly important role and have been a target of substantial research. Most sensors are used for individual, daily diabetes monitoring, but the demand for continuous in vivo monitoring of patients is also significant. Real-time measurements are highly desired in intensive care units, during surgery, or for the management of diabetes, where rapid biochemical changes can be missed by discrete measurements. Such monitoring requires miniaturized, biocompatible, and stable sensors. Although research has reached the level of short-term implantation, an implantable glucose sensor possessing long-term stability has not yet been realised. Besides the obvious biocompatability challenge, some sensors are prone to errors due to low oxygen tension or electroactive interferences. Third generation biosensors depend on enzymes that are able to permit direct electron transfer (DET) between the electrode material and the redox active centre. Usually this is hindered by the encapsulation of the redox center by the protein structure. However, as has been shown herein, the inventive CDH can exhibit electrical communication with electrode supports.

In certain embodiments the CDH has at least 10%, or at least 12%, preferably at least 14%, or at least 16%, in particular preferred at least 18%, or at least 20%, at least 21%, or even at least 22%, at least 23%, at least 24%, at least 25%, at least 26%, at least 27%, at least 28%, at least 29%, or at least 30%, glucose, lactose or cellobiose oxidising activity at a pH of 7.4 as compared to the maximal activity at a pH below 7.4 as determined by a cyt c assay and/or DCIP assay.

The fluid sample may be any fluid which potentially comprises glucose, including blood, serum and other body fluids.

In particularly preferred embodiments the CDH is of Chaetomium atrobrunneum, Corynascus thermophiles, Hypoxylon haematostroma, Neurospora crassa or Stachybotris bisbyi or a modified CDH of Myriococcum thermophilum with an increased activity at pH of 7.4 as defined above.

The cellobiose dehydrogenase of the present invention may be obtained from microorganisms of any genus. For purposes of the present invention the term “obtained from” as used herein in connection with a given source shall mean that the enzyme is produced by the source or by a cell in which the nucleic acid sequence of the cellobiose dehydrogenase gene from the source has been inserted. The enzyme or its nucleic acid sequence may be obtained from any fungal source and in a preferred embodiment from the genus Chaetomium, Corynascus, Hypoxylon, Myriococcum, Neurospora or Stachybotrys. In a more preferred embodiment the enzymes or the nucleic acid sequences are obtained from the species Chaetomium atrobrunneum, Corynascus thermophilus, Hypoxylon haematostroma, Myriococcum thermophilum, Neurospora crassa or Stachybotrys bisbyi.

In the most preferred embodiment the enzymes or the nucleic acid sequences are obtained from the strains Chaetomium atrobrunneum CBS 238.71, Corynascus thermophilus CBS 405.69, Hypoxylon haematostroma CBS 255.63, Myriococcum thermophilum CBS 208.89, Neurospora crassa DSMZ 2968 or Stachybotrys bisbyi DSMZ 63042.

It will be understood that for the aforementioned species, the invention encompasses both the perfect and imperfect states and other taxonomic equivalents, e.g., anamorphs, regardless the species name by which they are known. Those skilled in the art will readily recognise the identity of appropriate equivalents.

It is understood that one of skills in the art may engineer the mentioned or other cellobiose dehydrogenases to obtain the outlined specifications of the enzymes and enzyme variants described herein to obtain modified enzymes using the principles outlined herein like the rational approach via site-directed mutagenesis or directed evolution approaches (e.g., gene shuffling, error-prone PCR) and subsequent screening of the generated diversity. The techniques to introduce a mutation into the nucleic acid sequence to exchange one nucleotide for another nucleotide with the aim to exchange one amino acid for another in the resulting protein may be accomplished by site-directed mutagenesis using any of the methods known in the art.

The present invention is further illustrated by the following figures and examples without being restricted thereto.

FIGURES

FIG. 1 gives the codon-optimised nucleotide sequence (SEQ ID NO: 33) and the corresponding amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO: 1) of Myriococcum thermophilum CDH used for site-directed mutagenesis. Non-limiting preferred mutations sites are indicated by “*” and particular non-limiting preferred sites are marked by “+”.

FIG. 2 shows the pH profiles of screened ascomycete CDHs Chaetomium atrobrunneum CDH, 2.a; Corynascus thermophiles CDH, 2.b; Hypoxylon haematostroma CDH, 2.c; Neurospora crassa CDH, 2.d; Stachybotrys bisbyi CDH, 2.e; Myriococcum thermophilum CDH, 2.f; and the genetically engineered enzyme variants Myriococcum thermophilum CDH variant D181K, 2.g; Myriococcum thermophilum CDH variant D547S/E550S, 2.h using lactose and a soluble electron acceptor, 2,6-dichloroindophenol, (DCIP, dotted, grey lines) or cyt c (solid, black lines) as substrates and 50 mM citrate-phosphate buffer (pH 3.0-8.0). FIG. 2 i shows the relative direct electron transfer current of wild type Myriococcum thermophilum CDH with 5 mM glucose.

FIG. 3 is a sequence alignment of amino acid sequences of CDHs from Chaetomium atrobrunneum (SEQ ID NO: 5), Corynascus thermophilum (SEQ ID NO: 7), Hypoxylon haematostroma (SEQ ID NO: 3), Myriococcum thermophilum (SEQ ID NO: 1), Neurospora crassa (SEQ ID NO: 11) and Stachybotrys bisbyi (SEQ ID NO: 9).

FIG. 4 shows a setup of the wall jet electrode and auxiliary instruments. The sensor assembly (A) was continuously flushed with buffer and samples were applied through an ultrafast injection valve. The obtained current at a potential of 300 mV was recorded. The flow-jet system (A) consisted of a carbon working electrode (WE), a platin counter electrode (CE) and a silver reference electrode (RE) connected to a potentiostat.

FIG. 5: Measurement setup of the flow-cell system

EXAMPLES Example 1 Materials

Chemicals used in buffers and fermentation media were commercial products and at least of analytical grade if not otherwise stated. Peptone from meat and microcrystalline cellulose were from VWR International (Vienna, Austria), alpha-cellulose from Sigma-Aldrich (Vienna, Austria). Substrates for kinetic studies were lactose, glucose, 2,6-dichloroindophenol (DCIP) and cytochrome c from horse heart(cyt c) from Sigma-Aldrich in the highest grade of purity available. Buffers were prepared using water purified and deionised (18 MΩ) with a Milli-Q system (Millipore, Bedford, Mass., USA), fermentation media contained reversed osmosis water (0.1 MΩ).

Example 2 Enzyme Assays

Enzymatic activity of cellobiose dehydrogenase was detected by two assays. The DCIP assay, measuring the activity of the flavin domain was performed by measuring the time-dependent reduction of 300 μM DCIP in 50 mM citrate-phosphate buffer at the indicated pH (3.0-8.0), containing 30 mM lactose at 520 nm and 30° C. The absorption coefficient for DCIP is pH dependent but differs at 520 nm only about 3% within pH 3.0 to 8.0 and was determined to be 6.8 mM⁻¹ cm⁻¹ (Karapetyan et al., 2005 Journal of Biotechnology 121: 34-48).

Alternatively, enzymatic activity was determined by the reduction of cytochrome c at 30° C. and 550 nm (cyt c, c₅₅₀=19.6 mM⁻¹ cm⁻¹, Canevascini et al., 1991, European Journal of Biochemistry 198: 43-52) in an assay containing 20 μM cyt c and 30 mM lactose, which specifically detects the activity of the whole enzyme (flavin and haem domain). The cyt c assay gives thereby also a measure of the efficiency of the intramolecular electron transfer (IET) between both domains as an indication of the enzyme's response on electrodes in a pH range of 3.0 to 8.0 (50 mM sodium citrate-phosphate buffer). For the detection of activity with glucose the above mentioned assays were used, but lactose was exchanged for 100 mM glucose.

One unit of enzymatic activity was defined as the amount of enzyme that oxidises 1 μmol of lactose per min under the assay conditions. Lactose was chosen instead of the natural substrate cellobiose, as it shows no substrate inhibition with CDH. The reaction stoichiometry with carbohydrates is 1 for the two-electron acceptor DCIP, but 2 for the one-electron acceptor cyt c.

Example 3 Enzyme Kinetics

Carbohydrate stock solutions used for measuring activity and kinetic constants with the DCIP and cyt c assays were prepared in the appropriate buffer several hours before the experiment to allow mutarotation to reach equilibrium. pH profiles were determined using 50 mM citrate-phosphate buffer (3.0-8.0). To ensure an assay temperature of 30° C. the cuvettes were incubated in a thermostated chamber for at least 20 min. After the measurement, the pH was again checked in the cuvettes. Kinetic constants were calculated by fitting the observed data to the Henri-Michaelis-Menten equation or to the adapted model for substrate inhibition using nonlinear least-squares regression and the program SigmaPlot (Systat Software, San Jose, Calif., USA).

Example 4 Protein Characterisation

The protein concentration was determined by the dye-staining method of Bradford using a pre-fabricated assay from Bio-Rad Laboratories Hercules, Calif., USA) and bovine serum albumin as standard according to the manufacturers recommendations.

For spectral characterisation apparently homogeneous CDH (in the oxidised state) was diluted to an absorption of −1 at 280 nm and the spectrum from 260 to 700 nm taken with an Hitachi U3000 spectrophotometer (Tokyo, Japan). After reduction with lactose (final concentration 1 mM) the reduced spectrum was taken.

For electrophoretic characterisation SDS-PAGE was carried out on a Hoefer SE 260 Mighty Small II vertical electrophoresis unit. Gels (10.5×10 cm; 10% T, 2.7% C) were cast and run according to the manufacturers' modifications of the Laemmli system. Isoelectric focusing in the range of pH 2.5 to 6.5 was performed on a Multiphor II system using precast, dry gels rehydrated with Ampholytes (GE Healthcare Biosiences, Vienna, Austria). Protein bands on the SDS-PAGE were stained with silver, bands on the IEF gel with Coomassie blue R-250, according to the instructions.

Example 5 Screening for Suitable Cellobiose Dehydrogenases

Fungal strains (Chaetomium atrobrunneum CBS 238.71, Corynascus thermophilus CBS 405.69, Hypoxylon haematostroma CBS 255.63, Myriococcum thermophilum CBS 208.89, Neurospora crassa DSMZ 2968 and Stachybotrys bisbyi DSMZ 63042) were obtained from the Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures (CBS, Utrecht, The Netherlands) and Deutsche Sammlung von Mikroorganismen and Zellkulturen (DSMZ, Braunschweig, Germany) in freeze dried or actively growing form on agar slants and were periodically subcultured on potato dextrose agar (PDA) plates. Freshly inoculated agar plates were grown at 25 or 30° C., depending on the published growth temperatures of the cultures until reaching a diameter of 5 cm and then used to inoculate shaking flasks. The medium used for submersed cultures contained (per liter): 20 g of alpha-cellulose, 5 g of peptone from meat and 0.3 ml of a trace element solution. The trace element solution contained (per liter): 1 g of ZnSC₄.7H₂O, 0.3 g of MnCl₂.4H₂O, 3 g of H₃BO₃, 2 g of CoCl₂.6H₂O, 0.1 g of CuSC₄.5H₂O, 0.2 g of NiCl₂.6H₂O, 4 ml of H₂SO₄ (Sachslehner et al., 1997, Applied Biochemistry and Biotechnology 6365: 189-201). For the cultivation in shaking flasks, 1 L Erlenmeyer flasks were filled with 0.3 L of medium. After sterilisation the flasks were inoculated with 3 cm² of finely cut mycelium from PDA plates and incubated in a rotary shaker (110 rpm, eccentricity=1.25 cm) at 25 or 30° C. Samples were taken regularly and the production of CDH was monitored.

Example 6 CDH Production and Purification from Fungal Sources

CDH production was performed in up to 16 parallel shaking flask cultures per strain using identical conditions as in the screening procedure. Cultures were harvested on the day exhibiting maximum cyt c activity. The culture supernatant was separated from residual cellulose and fungal biomass by centrifugation (20 min, 6000×g) and concentrated and diafiltrated using a polyethersulfone hollow fibre cross-flow module with a 10 kDa cut-off (Microza UF module SLP-1053, Pall Corporation) until a conductivity of 2 mS cm⁻¹ was reached. The concentrated enzyme preparation was applied to a DEAE Sepharose column (chromatography equipment from GE Healthcare Biosciences) mounted on an AKTA Explorer system and equilibrated with 50 mM sodium acetate buffer, pH 5.5. The column was eluted with a linear salt gradient (0 to 0.5 M NaCl in the same buffer) in 10 column volumes (CV). Fractions with a high specific CDH activity were pooled, saturated ammonium sulphate solution was slowly added at 4° C. to 20% final saturation and applied to a PHE-Source column equilibrated with 100 mM sodium acetate buffer, pH 5.5 containing (NH₄)₂SO₄ (20% saturation) and 0.2 M NaCl. The column was eluted with a linear gradient (0 to 100% of 20 mM sodium acetate buffer, pH 5.5) in 10 CV. The purest CDH fractions were pooled, desalted with 20 mM sodium acetate buffer, pH 5.5, concentrated and frozen at −70° C. for further use.

Example 7 Obtaining Nucleotide and Protein Sequences of New CDHs

Mycelium for nucleic acid isolations was harvested from cellulose induced growing cultures after 5 days. The mycelium was frozen in liquid nitrogen and homogenized using mortar and pestle. Portions of 100 mg mycelium were used for DNA extraction (Liu et al., 2000, Journal of Clinical Microbiology, 38: 471). Total RNA was isolated using TriFast (Peqlab, Erlangen, Germany). cDNA synthesis was performed with the First Strand cDNA Synthesis Kit (Fermentas, Vilnius, Lithuania) and the anchor primer (5′-GGCCACGCGTCGACTAGTACTTTTTTTTTTTTTT-3′). Degenerated primer on the basis of known ascomycete CDH sequences were used to amplify fragments of genomic DNA encoding for CDH. For the amplification of the adjacent upstream region the DNA Walking SpeedUp Premix Kit (Seegene, Seoul, Korea) was used. For the amplification of the 3′ region cDNA was used as a template. To obtain full-length cDNA clones encoding the CDH proteins a nested PCR with two specific forward primer upstream of the putative start codon and two reverse primer, one specific for a sequence shortly downstream of the stop codon and the universal primer (5′-GTACTAGTCGACGCGTGGCC-3′) complementary to the anchor primer, was done. Names in the following primer table are abbreviated as follows: Chaetomium atrobrunneum, CA; Corynascus thermophilus, CT; Hypoxylon haematostroma, HH; Neurospora crassa, NC; Stachybotrys bisbyi, SB.

forward primer reverse primer 5′-HH-1 atgcctctcttgtttggaccg Universal 5′-HH-2 tcaactctcatacttggcttgg 3′-HH-1 TACATCCAGCTTACCGGCACTG 5′-CA-1 TAGAGTCGAGGCGAACCAG UNIVERSAL 5′-CA-2 TTGCTGCTGTGCTCCTATGC 3′-CA-1 ttccttccctccatcaactcc 5′-SB-1 tcttgctacgcacttcggtattg Universal 5′-SB-2 TGTGTACCCTGTTTACTCACC 3′-SB-1 GTACCCATTAAGTACACTGCCAG 5′-CT-1 TCTTATAAGCCTTTGGCTCC Universal 5′-CT-2 TTGGCTCCGTTGGAACAATG 3′-CT-1 TTCCCCCTTCGAATTCGGTC 5′-NC-1 cgcaccaaccgtgtgaagtg Universal 5′-NC-2 TACAAGATGAGGACCACCTCG 3′-NC-1 AGCTACCTATCACCCTCTGTC The obtained PCR products were then fully sequenced to obtain the complete nucleic acid sequence of the respective cdh gene.

Example 8 Generation of Myriococcum thermophilum CDH Variants by Site-Directed Mutagenesis

For enhanced production of recombinant Myriococcum thermophilum CDH (Zamocky et al., 2008,) in Pichia pastoris the gene (gene bank accession code EF 492052, GI:164597963) was codon optimised (FIG. 1) for expression in P. pastoris and synthesized by GenScript (Piscataway, N.J., USA). The gene shows a maximum similarity with CDH from Thielavia heterothallica (74% identity) and only 63% identity with the gene from Humicola insolens. On the protein level, the similarity is highest to Thielavia heterothallica CDH (93% identity, 97% positives, 0% gaps) and quite low for Humicola insolens CDH (61% identity, 71% positives, 2% gaps).

The synthetic M. thermophilum CDH gene was mutated by a two-step site-directed mutagenesis protocol using PCR and Dpn/digestion. The yeast vector pPICZ A carrying the synthetic CDH gene was used as template for mutagenic PCR. For the replacement of Asp160 with Lys the primers 5′-TCCAAGCTTTTAAAGATCCAGGTAAC-3′ (Mt CDH-D181K-fw) and 5′-AAAAGCTTGGACCCAACCAAG-3′ (Mt CDH-D181Krv) were used. For the double mutant D547S/E550S primers 5′-GTCTTCTATTCTTTTTACTCTGCTTGGGATG-3′ (Mt CDH-D547S/E550S-fw) and 5′-ATAGAAGACCACATCAGGG-3′ (Mt CDH-D547S/E550S-rv) were used. The mutation sites are indicated by bold letters in the mutagenic forward primers. PCR was performed under the following conditions: 98° C. for 30 s, then 32 cycles of 98° C. for 10 s; 62° C. for 20 s; 72° C. for 2 min, with a 10 min final extension at 72° C. The 50 μl reaction mix contained Phusion HF Buffer (New England Biolabs, Ipswich, Mass., USA), 0.1 μg of plasmid DNA, 1 unit of Phusion DNA polymerase (New England Biolabs), 10 μM of each dNTP and 5 pmol of each primer.

PCR reactions were separated by agarose gel electrophoresis and bands at 6 kB purified using the Wizard SV Gel and PCRCleanUp System (Promega, Madison, Wis., USA). The purified PCR fragment was digested with DpnI (Fermentas, Vilnius, Lithuania) to remove methylated DNA. 10 μl of this reaction was used to transform chemically competent NEB-5-Alpha E. coli cells (New England Biolabs) according to the manufacturer. For each mutation 3 colonies were checked by sequencing for the presence of the correct mutation. The purified plasmid of a positive clone was linearized with Sad and used to transform competent X-33 P. pastoris cells. Colonies growing on YPD zeocin agar plates (100 mg/L) were checked by PCR for the integration of the construct. Two positive clones of each mutation were further cultivated under induced condition and analysed for CDH production. The clones with the highest yield were selected for fermentation.

Example 9 Production of Recombinant CDH

An overnight pre-culture of a Pichia pastoris transformant (selected from a YPD plate with 100 mg/L Zeocin) was inoculated into 0.3 L of production stage medium in a Infors HT multifermenter (Bottmingen, Switzerland). The production stage medium contained per liter: 26.7 ml of H₃PO₄ (85%); 0.93 g of CaSO₄.2H₂O; 14.9 g of MgSO₄.7H₂O; 18.2 g of K₂SO₄; 4.13 g of KOH; 4% (v/v) glycerol; 1.45 ml of PTM₁ trace element solution for P. pastoris according to the Invitrogen manual 053002 Ver. B (Carlsbad, Calif., USA). The PTM₁ trace element solution contains per liter: 6 g of CuSO₄.5H₂O, 0.08 g of NaI, 3 g of MnSO₄.H₂O, 0.2 g of NaMoO₄.2H₂O, 0.02 g of H₃BO₃, 0.5 g of CoCl₂, 20 g of ZnCl₂, FeSO₄7H₂O, 0.2 g of biotin, 5 ml of sulfuric acid. A glycerol feed was performed with an addition of 9 gL⁻¹h⁻¹ until the wet cell weight exceeded 150 g per liter. As soon as the residual glycerol was used up (determined by monitoring the increase of the dissolved oxygen tension), a methanol feed (100% methanol containing 12 ml PTM₁ trace element solution per liter) with an average addition of 3 gL⁻¹h⁻¹ was started and continued for 72 h at 30° C. and 20% oxygen tension. The culture supernatant was separated from residual biomass by centrifugation (20 min, 6000×g) and concentrated and purified by hydrophobic interaction chromatography. To that purpose, saturated ammonium sulphate solution was slowly added to the clear culture supernatant at 4° C. to 20% final saturation. After a second centrifugation step (30 min, 30,000×g) the solution was applied to a PHE-Source column (GE Healthcare Biosciences) equilibrated with 100 mM sodium acetate buffer, pH 5.5 containing (NH₄)₂SO₄ (20% saturation) and 0.2 M NaCl. The column was eluted with a linear gradient (0 to 100% of 20 mM sodium acetate buffer, pH 5.5) in 10 CV. The purest CDH fractions were pooled, desalted with 20 mM sodium acetate buffer, pH 5.5, concentrated and stored for further use.

Example 10 Electrochemical Equipment

A three electrode flow through amperometric wall jet cell was used (Appelqvist et al, Anal. Chim. Acta, 169 (1985) 237-47.) and contained the working electrode (graphite electrode modified with CDH), a reference electrode (Ag|AgCl in 0.1 M KCl) and a counter electrode made of a platinum wire, connected to a potentiostat (Zata Elektronik, Hoor, Sweden). The enzyme modified electrode was pressfitted into a Teflon holder and inserted into the wall jet cell and kept at a constant distance (ca. 1 mm) from the inlet nozzle. The response currents were recorded on a strip chart recorder (Kipp & Zonen, Delft, The Netherlands). The electrochemical cell was connected on-line to a single line flow injection (FI) system, in which the carrier flow was maintained at a constant flow rate of 0.5 ml min⁻¹ by a peristaltic pump (Gilson, Villier-le-Bel, France). The injector was an electrically controlled six-port valve (Rheodyne, Cotati, Calif., USA), and the injection loop volume was 50 μl.

For the screen-printed electrodes a special methacrylate wall jet flow for flow injection analysis (FIA) from propSense (Oviedo, Spain) was used. The electrochemical cell consists of a carbon working electrode (4 mm diameter), a carbon counter electrode and silver reference electrode connected to a potentiostat (Zäta Elektronic). The response currents were recorded on a strip chart recorder (Kipp & Zonen). The electrochemical cell was connected on-line to a single flow injection (FI) system, in which the carrier flow was maintained at a constant flow rate of 0.5 ml min⁻¹ by a peristaltic pump (Gilson). For injection an electronically controlled six-port valve (Rheodyne) and a injection loop (50 μl) was used.

Example 11 Preparation of Enzyme Modified Graphite Electrodes

CDH was immobilised through simple chemo-physical adsorption onto the surface of solid spectroscopic graphite electrodes (diameter=3.05 mm, Ringsdorff Spektralkohlestäbe, SGL Carbon Sigri Greatlakes Carbon Group Ringsdorff-Werke GmbH, Bonn Germany). The electrode was cut and polished on wet emery paper (Tufbak, Durite, P400) and afterwards carefully rinsed with Milli-Q water and dried. Then 5 μl of enzyme solution was spread onto the entire active surface of the electrode (0.0731 cm²). The electrode was dried at room temperature and then stored overnight at 4° C. Before use, the electrode was thoroughly rinsed with Milli-Q water in order to remove any weakly adsorbed enzyme and plugged into in the wall jet cell already containing buffer. Then, the required potential was applied until a stable background current was obtained before any substrate was injected into the flow system.

Example 12 Preparation of Enzyme-Modified Screen Printed Electrodes

Five μl of enzyme solution was placed on the carbon-based electrode (DropSens, Oviedo, Spain) so that the whole area was entirely coated with solution. The immobilisation was allowed to proceed overnight at 4° C. Before use the electrodes were thoroughly rinsed with water. Cross-linking of the biocomponent was carried out by chemical modification with glutaraldehyde where 1 μl of an aqueous 1% glutaraldehyde solution was applied on the enzyme layer at 37° C. for 10-15 min. After rinsing the electrodes were allowed to dry at room temperature.

The optimum for the applied potential was determined with a 10 mM lactose solution. The potential was varied stepwise from −250 to +600 mV vs. Ag|AgCl in 0.1 M KCl and +300 mV chosen for further experiments.

Example 13 pH Profiles of CDH Immobilised on Electrodes

The activity versus pH-profile for direct electron transfer (DET) of the adsorbed enzyme was determined electrochemically using a flow injection system. The substrate was lactose with a concentration of 5 mM. As enzyme assays should proceed under saturating substrate conditions so that slight variations in the absolute concentration have no influence on the reaction rate an amount at least 10 times the K_(M)-value should be present. The following buffers were used in the experiments: 50 mM sodium citrate buffer (pH 3.0-6.5), 50 mM sodium phosphate buffer (pH 6.0-9.0). The buffers were degassed before use to prevent micro bubbles in the flow system.

Example 14 Heterogeneous Enzyme Kinetics on Electrodes

The kinetic parameters K_(M) (Michaelis-Menten constant) and v_(max) (maximum volumetric activity), in this case equal to I_(max) (maximum response in current), were determined for a number of substrates in the DET mode (the electron acceptor being the graphite electrode). All kinetic parameters were calculated by nonlinear least-square regression, fitting the observed data to the Henri-Michaelis-Menten equation. These calculations were done after correcting the substrate concentration values using the dispersion factor of the flow system used including the wall jet cell by dividing the steady state current registered for a 50 mM ferrocyanide solution with that of the peak current for the injected sample having an equal concentration of ferrocyanide and using an applied potential of 400 mV (Ruzicka and Hansen, Flow Injection Analysis, 2nd ed., Wiley, New York 1988). In our case, for a 1 mm distance between electrode and inlet nozzle and 0.5 ml min⁻¹ flow rate, the dispersion factor D was equal to 1.18 (FIG. 5).

Example 15 CDH of Chaetomium atrobrunneum

A cellobiose dehydrogenase with high glucose turnover rates and activity under physiological pH conditions was obtained from liquid cultures of Chaetomium atrobrunneum. The culture was grown and screened as described. The maximum activity under the chosen conditions was 90 U/L (cyt c assay, pH 6.0, 11^(th) day). For enzyme production and purification the outlined procedures were applied and resulted in an CDH preparation with a specific activity of 11.7 U/mg (DCIP assay, pH 6.0), an apparent molecular weight of 90 kDa as determined by SDS-PAGE and an isoelectric point of 4.6. The calculated molecular weight of the obtained protein sequence is 86.047 kDa and fits well to the native CDH. The calculated isoelectric point is 5.0. The spectrum of Chaetomium atrobrunneum CDH is typical and shows the haem alpha-, beta- and gamma-bands of the reduced enzyme at 563, 533 and 430 nm. In the oxidised enzyme the gamma-band has its absorption maximum at 421 nm with a shoulder at 450 nm, which disappears after reduction with lactose and corresponds to the absorption peak of the FAD cofactor. Kinetic characterisation with the cyt c assay and lactose as electron donor resulted in a neutral pH profile with an activity maximum at pH 5.0 and still 18% relative activity at pH 7.4 (FIG. 2.a). The specific activity at pH 7.4 was 0.88 U/mg using the cyt c assay and glucose as substrate. The pH optimum of the flavin domain was obtained with the DCIP assay and shows a more acidic pH optimum, however, the flavin domain is sufficiently active at pH 7.4 also with this electron acceptor. Kinetic constants for glucose (obtained with the cyt c assay at pH 5.0) are a K_(M) of 240 mM and a k_(cat) of 17.5 s⁻¹ for glucose, which shows in comparison to currently known enzymes a far better suitability of this enzyme for the proposed application.

To test the electrochemical behaviour of Chaetomium atrobrunneum CDH on electrodes, the purified enzyme preparation was immobilised by adsorption on a spectroscopic graphite electrode surface. Using a flow cell and subsequent injections of 50 mM glucose, DET currents were determined to determine the pH optimum, the current at the pH optimum and the current at pH 7.4. The optimum pH under the chosen conditions is 5.6 and 48% of the maximum current was obtained at pH 7.4 in 10 mM phosphate buffered saline (PBS) containing 100 mM NaCl. The K_(M) value of the heterogenised enzyme at optimum pH on the electrode surface was determined to be 80 mM and I_(max)=30 nA. The currents obtained in glucose measurements should therefore follow a nearly linear relationship for concentrations approx. five-fold below the K_(M) value. The DET current density obtained at pH 7.4 was 233 nA/cm² and the linear range for glucose detection at pH 7.4 with the chosen setup within 3-15 mM.

Example 16 CDH from Corynascus thermophilus

A cellobiose dehydrogenase with high glucose turnover rates and activity under physiological pH conditions was obtained from liquid cultures of Corynascus thermophilus. The maximum activity obtained was 1400 U/L (cyt c assay, pH 6.0, 6^(th) day). For enzyme production and purification the outlined procedures were applied and resulted in a CDH preparation with a specific activity of 17.9 U/mg, an apparent molecular weight of 87 kDa as determined by SDS-PAGE and an isoelectric point of 4.1. The calculated molecular weight of the obtained protein sequence is 81.946 kDa and fits well to the native CDH. The calculated isoelectric point is 4.64. The spectrum of C. thermophilus CDH is typical and shows the haem α-, β- and γ-bands of the reduced enzyme at 562, 533 and 429 nm. In the oxidised enzyme the γ-band has its absorption maximum at 420 nm with a shoulder at 450 nm, which disappears after reduction with lactose and corresponds to the absorption peak of the FAD cofactor. Kinetic characterisation with the cyt c assay resulted in a pH profile with an activity maximum at pH 7.5 and 98% relative activity at pH 7.4 (FIG. 2.b). The specific activity at pH 7.4 was 3.6 U/mg using the cyt c assay and glucose as substrate. The pH optimum of the flavin domain was obtained with the DCIP assay and shows a more acidic pH optimum, however, the flavin domain is sufficiently active at pH 7.4 also with this electron acceptor. Kinetic constants for glucose (obtained with the cyt c assay at pH 5.0) are a K_(M) of 950 mM and a k_(cat) of 32 s⁻¹ for glucose.

To test the electrochemical behaviour of C. thermophilus CDH on electrodes, the purified enzyme preparation was immobilised by adsorption on a spectroscopic graphite electrode surface. Using a flow cell and subsequent injections of 50 mM glucose, DET currents were determined to determine the pH optimum, the current at the pH optimum and the current at pH 7.4. The optimum pH under the chosen conditions is 8.5 and 96% of the maximum current was obtained at pH 7.4 in 10 mM phosphate buffered saline (PBS) containing 100 mM NaCl. The K_(M) value of the heterogenised enzyme at optimum pH on the electrode surface was determined to be 188 mM and I_(max)=190 nA. The currents obtained in glucose measurements should therefore follow a nearly linear relationship for concentrations approx. five-fold below the K_(M) value. The DET current density obtained at pH 7.4 was 3500 nA/cm² and the linear range for glucose detection at pH 7.4 with the chosen setup within 1-15 mM.

Example 17 CDH of Hypoxylon haematostroma

A cellobiose dehydrogenase with high glucose turnover rates and activity under physiological pH conditions was obtained from liquid cultures of Hypoxylon haematostroma. The culture was grown and screened as described. The maximum activity under the chosen conditions was 65 U/L (cyt c assay, pH 6.0, 9^(th) day). For enzyme production and purification the outlined procedures were applied and resulted in an CDH preparation with a specific activity of 15.3 U/mg (DCIP assay, pH 6.0), an apparent molecular weight of 85 Da as determined by SDS-PAGE and an isoelectric point of 4.1. The calculated molecular weight of the obtained protein sequence is 87.514 kDa and fits well to the native CDH. The calculated isoelectric point is 6.37. The spectrum of Hypoxylon haematostroma CDH is typical and shows the haem alpha-, beta- and gamma-bands of the reduced enzyme at 563, 533 and 429 nm. In the oxidised enzyme the gamma-band has its absorption maximum at 421 nm with a shoulder at 450 nm, which disappears after reduction with lactose and corresponds to the absorption peak of the FAD cofactor. Kinetic characterisation with the cyt c assay and lactose as electron donor resulted in a neutral pH profile with an activity maximum at pH 5.5 and still 65% relative activity at pH 7.4 (FIG. 2.c). The specific activity at pH 7.4 was 2.73 U/mg using the cyt c assay and glucose as substrate. The pH optimum of the flavin domain was obtained with the DCIP assay and shows a more acidic pH optimum, however, the flavin domain is sufficiently active at pH 7.4 also with this electron acceptor. Kinetic constants for glucose (obtained with the cyt c assay at pH 5.5) are a K_(M) of 260 mM and a k_(cat) of 8.8 s⁻¹ for glucose, which shows in comparison to currently known enzymes a far better suitability of this enzyme for the proposed application.

To test the electrochemical behaviour of Hypoxylon haematostroma CDH on electrodes, the purified enzyme preparation was immobilised by adsorption on a spectroscopic graphite electrode surface. Using a flow cell and subsequent injections of 50 mM glucose, DET currents were determined to determine the pH optimum, the current at the pH optimum and the current at pH 7.4. The optimum pH under the chosen conditions is 7.5 and the maximum current was obtained at this pH and at pH 7.4 in 10 mM phosphate buffered saline (PBS) containing 100 mM NaCl. The K_(M) value of the heterogenised enzyme at optimum pH (7.4) on the electrode surface for glucose was determined to be 49 mM and I_(max)=55 nA. The currents obtained in glucose measurements should therefore follow a nearly linear relationship for concentrations approx. five-fold below the K_(M) value. The DET current density obtained at pH 7.4 was 383 nA/cm² and the linear range for glucose detection at pH 7.4 with the chosen setup within 2-20 mM.

Example 18 CDH of Neurospora crassa

A cellobiose dehydrogenase with high glucose turnover rates and activity under physiological pH conditions was obtained from liquid cultures of Neurospora crassa. The culture was grown and screened as described. The maximum activity under the chosen conditions was 156 U/L (cyt c assay, pH 6.0, 18th day). For enzyme production and purification the outlined procedures were applied and resulted in an CDH preparation with a specific activity of 10.6 U/mg (DCIP assay, pH 6.0), an apparent molecular weight of 90 kDa as determined by SDS-PAGE and an isoelectric point of 4.3. The calculated molecular weight of the obtained protein sequence is 86.283 kDa and fits well to the native CDH. The calculated isoelectric point is 6.68. The spectrum of Neurospora crassa CDH is typical and shows the haem alpha-, beta- and gamma-bands of the reduced enzyme at 563, 533 and 430 nm. In the oxidised enzyme the gamma-band has its absorption maximum at 421 nm with a shoulder at 450 nm, which disappears after reduction with lactose and corresponds to the absorption peak of the FAD cofactor. Kinetic characterisation with the cyt c assay and lactose as electron donor resulted in a neutral pH profile with an activity maximum at pH 6.0 and 52% relative activity at pH 7.4 (FIG. 2.d). The specific activity at pH 7.4 was 1.04 U/mg using the cyt c assay and glucose as substrate. The pH optimum of the flavin domain was obtained with the DCIP assay and shows a more acidic pH optimum, however, the flavin domain is sufficiently active at pH 7.4 also with this electron acceptor. Kinetic constants for glucose (obtained with the cyt c assay at pH 5.5) are a K_(M) of 1680 mM and a kcat of 15.9 for glucose, which shows in comparison to other known enzymes a far better suitability of this enzyme for the proposed application.

To test the electrochemical behaviour of Neurospora crassa CDH on electrodes, the purified enzyme preparation was immobilised by adsorption on a spectroscopic graphite electrode surface. Using a flow cell and subsequent injections of 50 mM glucose, DET currents were determined to determine the pH optimum, the current at the pH optimum and the current at pH 7.4. The optimum pH under the chosen conditions is 5.0 and 31% of the maximum current was obtained at pH 7.4 in 10 mM phosphate buffered saline (PBS) containing 100 mM NaCl. The K_(M) value of the heterogenised enzyme at optimum pH on the electrode surface was determined to be 90 mM and I_(max)=5 nA. The currents obtained in glucose measurements should therefore follow a nearly linear relationship for concentrations approx. five-fold below the K_(M) value. The DET current density obtained at pH 7.4 was 82 nA/cm² and the linear range for glucose detection at pH 7.4 with the chosen setup within 2-10 mM.

Example 19 CDH of Stachybotris bisbyi

A cellobiose dehydrogenase with high glucose turnover rates and activity under physiological pH conditions was obtained from liquid cultures of Stachybotris bisbyi. The culture was grown and screened as described. The maximum activity under the chosen conditions was 154 U/L (cyt c assay, pH 6.0, 24^(th) day). For enzyme production and purification the outlined procedures were applied and resulted in a CDH preparation with a specific activity of 7.9 U/mg (DCIP assay, pH 6.0), an apparent molecular weight of 100 kDa as determined by SDS-PAGE and an isoelectric point of 4.5. The calculated molecular weight of the obtained protein sequence is 86.212 kDa and fits well to the native CDH when considering a glycosylation of 14% of S. bisbyi CDH, a value which lies within the observed range (2-15%, Zámocký et al., 2006, Current Protein and Peptide Science, 7: 255-280). The calculated isoelectric point is 6.37. The spectrum of Stachybotris bisbyi CDH is typical and shows the haem alpha-, beta- and gamma-bands of the reduced enzyme at 562, 533 and 430 nm. In the oxidised enzyme the gamma-band has its absorption maximum at 420 nm with a shoulder at 450 nm, which disappears after reduction with lactose and corresponds to the absorption peak of the FAD cofactor. Kinetic characterisation with the cyt c assay resulted in a pH profile with an activity maximum at pH 5.5 and 60% relative activity at pH 7.4 (FIG. 2.e). The specific activity at pH 7.4 was 0.58 U/mg using the cyt c assay and glucose as substrate. The pH optimum of the flavin domain was obtained with the DCIP assay and shows a similar trend indicating that substrate oxidation by the enzyme is efficient at pH 7.4. Kinetic constants for glucose (obtained with the cyt c assay at pH 5.5) are a K_(M) of 950 mM and a k_(cat) of 14.1 s⁻² for glucose, which shows in comparison to currently known enzymes a far better suitability of this enzyme for the proposed application.

To test the electrochemical behaviour of Stachybotris bisbyi CDH on electrodes, the purified enzyme preparation was immobilised by adsorption on a spectroscopic graphite electrode surface. Using a flow cell and subsequent injections of 50 mM glucose, DET currents were determined to determine the pH optimum, the current at the pH optimum and the current at pH 7.4. The optimum pH under the chosen conditions is 5.0 and 27% of the maximum current was obtained at pH 7.4 in 10 mM phosphate buffered saline (PBS) containing 100 mM NaCl. The K_(M) value of the heterogenised enzyme at optimum pH on the electrode surface was determined to be 131 mM and I_(max)=65 nA. The currents obtained in glucose measurements should therefore follow a nearly linear relationship for concentrations approx. five-fold below the K_(M) value. The DET current density obtained at pH 7.4 was 237 nA/cm² and the linear range for glucose detection at pH 7.4 with the chosen setup within 3-15 mM.

Example 20 CDH from Myriococcum thermophilum

CDH from Myriococcum thermophilum was found to oxidise glucose very efficiently (Harreither et al., 2007, Electroanalysis 19: 172-180), but not under physiological conditions. It was used as a protein scaffold for which DET at neutral pH was developed by means of genetic engineering. The enzyme variants D181K and D547S/E550S were obtained according to the described methods to increase the IET at pH 7.4 and thereby the electrode response in order to optimise the enzyme for applications under neutral or alkaline pH conditions.

For enzyme production and purification of the enzyme from the native producer, the protocol given in (Harreither et al., 2007, Electroanalysis 19: 172-180) was followed and resulted in a CDH preparation with a specific activity of 10.7 U/mg (DCIP assay, pH 6.0), an apparent molecular weight of 94 kDa and an isoelectric point of 3.8. The calculated molecular weight of the protein sequence is 86.701 kDa and fits well to the native CDH. The calculated isoelectric point is 4.62. The spectrum of CDH obtained from M. thermophilum is typical and shows the haem alpha-, beta- and gamma-bands of the reduced enzyme at 563, 533 and 429 nm. In the oxidised enzyme the gamma-band has its absorption maximum at 421 nm with a shoulder at 450 nm, which disappears after reduction with lactose and corresponds to the absorption peak of the FAD cofactor. Kinetic characterisation with the cyt c assay and lactose as electron donor resulted in a neutral pH profile with an activity maximum between pH 4.0-4.5 and 0% relative activity at pH 7.4 (FIG. 2.f). The specific activity at pH 7.4 was also 0 U/mg using the cyt c assay and glucose as substrate. The pH optimum of the flavin domain was obtained with the DCIP assay and shows a far less acidic pH optimum (6.0), indicating that substrate oxidation at the flavin domain is performed even at neutral and slightly alkaline conditions efficiently, but the IET is rate limiting. The obtained kinetic constants for glucose (DCIP assay, pH 6.0; K_(M)=250 mM, kcat=14.2 s⁻¹) show that although glucose conversion is very efficient, M. thermophilum CDH is not suitable for the proposed application because no IET was measured above pH 7.0.

The recombinant enzyme variants were produced heterologeously in P. pastoris according to the explained routines. The molecular weights, isoelectric points or spectral properties did not differ significantly from the native enzyme produced by the fungus.

Kinetic characterisation of D181K with the cyt c assay and lactose as electron donor resulted in a pH with an activity maximum at 5.0 and 24% relative activity at pH 7.4 (FIG. 2.g). The specific activity at pH 7.4 was 1.01 U/mg using the cyt c assay and glucose as substrate. To test the electro-chemical behaviour of D181K on electrodes, the purified enzyme preparation was immobilised by adsorption on a screen printed electrode. Using a flow cell and subsequent injections of 50 mM glucose, DET currents were determined to determine the pH optimum, the current at the pH optimum and the current at pH 7.4. The optimum pH under the chosen conditions is 5.5 and 52% of the maximum current was obtained at pH 7.4 in 10 mM phosphate buffered saline (PBS) containing 100 mM NaCl. The K_(M) value of the heterogenised enzyme at optimum pH on the electrode surface was determined to be 133 mM and I_(max)=105 nA. The currents obtained in glucose measurements should therefore follow a nearly linear relationship for concentrations approx. five-fold below the K_(M) value. The DET current density obtained at pH 7.4 was 513 nA/cm² and the linear range for glucose detection at pH 7.4 with the chosen setup within 0.5-20 mM.

Kinetic characterisation of D181R with the cyt c assay and lactose as electron donor resulted in a pH with an activity maximum at 5.0 and 20% relative activity at pH 7.4. The specific activity at pH 7.4 was 0.73 U/mg using the cyt c assay and glucose as substrate. To test the electrochemical behaviour of D181R on electrodes, the purified enzyme preparation was immobilised by adsorption on a screen printed electrode. Using a flow cell and subsequent injections of 50 mM glucose, DET currents were determined for pH 5.0 and 7.4 in 10 mM phosphate buffered saline (PBS) containing 100 mM NaCl. The DET current density obtained at pH 5.0 and 7.4 was 485 nA/cm² and 168 nA/cm², respectively. The electrode had 42% of the maximum current at pH 7.4.

Kinetic characterisation of D198K with the cyt c assay and lactose as electron donor resulted in a pH with an activity maximum at 5.0 and 22% relative activity at pH 7.4. The specific activity at pH 7.4 was 0.62 U/mg using the cyt c assay and glucose as substrate. To test the electrochemical behaviour of D198K on electrodes, the purified enzyme preparation was immobilised by adsorption on a screen printed electrode. Using a flow cell and subsequent injections of 50 mM glucose, DET currents were determined for pH 5.0 and 7.4 in 10 mM phosphate buffered saline (PBS) containing 100 mM NaCl. The DET current density obtained at pH 5.0 and 7.4 was 259 nA/cm² and 108 nA/cm², respectively. The electrode had 42% of the maximum current at pH 7.4.

Kinetic characterisation of D198N with the cyt c assay and lactose as electron donor resulted in a pH with an activity maximum at 5.0 and 22% relative activity at pH 7.4. The specific activity at pH 7.4 was 0.69 U/mg using the cyt c assay and glucose as substrate. To test the electrochemical behaviour of D198N on electrodes, the purified enzyme preparation was immobilised by adsorption on a screen printed electrode. Using a flow cell and subsequent injections of 50 mM glucose, DET currents were determined for pH 5.0 and 7.4 in 10 mM phosphate buffered saline (PBS) containing 100 mM NaCl. The DET current density obtained at pH 5.0 and 7.4 was 353 nA/cm² and 140 nA/cm², respectively. The electrode had 40% of the maximum current at pH 7.4.

Kinetic characterisation of D568S/E571S with the cyt c assay and lactose as electron donor resulted in a pH with an activity maximum between 4.5 and 5.0 and 13% relative activity at pH 7.4 (FIG. 2.h). The specific activity at pH 7.4 was 0.70 U/mg using the cyt c assay and glucose as substrate. To test the electrochemical behaviour of D568S/E571S on electrodes, the purified enzyme preparation was immobilised by adsorption on a graphite electrode surface. Using a flow cell and subsequent injections of 50 mM glucose, DET currents were determined to determine the pH optimum, the current at the pH optimum and the current at pH 7.4. The optimum pH under the chosen conditions is 5.5 and 24% of the maximum current was obtained at pH 7.4 in 10 mM phosphate buffered saline (PBS) containing 100 mM NaCl. The K_(M) value of the heterogenised enzyme at optimum pH on the electrode surface was determined to be 55 mM and I_(max)=30 nA. The currents obtained in glucose measurements should therefore follow a nearly linear relationship for concentrations approx. five-fold below the K_(M) value. The DET current density obtained at pH 7.4 was 241 nA/cm² and the linear range for glucose detection at pH 7.4 with the chosen setup within 1-20 mM.

Kinetic characterisation of D568S/E571S/D574S with the cyt c assay and lactose as electron donor resulted in a pH with an activity maximum at 5.5 and 43% relative activity at pH 7.4. The specific activity at pH 7.4 was 2.49 U/mg using the cyt c assay and glucose as substrate. To test the electrochemical behaviour of D568S/E571S/D574S on electrodes, the purified enzyme preparation was immobilised by adsorption on a screen printed electrode. Using a flow cell and subsequent injections of 50 mM glucose, DET currents were determined for pH 5.0 and 7.4 in 10 mM phosphate buffered saline (PBS) containing 100 mM NaCl. The DET current density obtained at pH 5.0 and 7.4 was 455 nA/cm² and 184 nA/cm², respectively. The electrode had 40% of the maximum current at pH 7.4.

Kinetic characterisation of E571K with the cyt c assay and lactose as electron donor resulted in a pH with an activity maximum at 5.0 and 17% relative activity at pH 7.4. The specific activity at pH 7.4 was 0.50 U/mg using the cyt c assay and glucose as substrate. To test the electrochemical behaviour of E571K on electrodes, the purified enzyme preparation was immobilised by adsorption on a screen printed electrode. Using a flow cell and subsequent injections of 50 mM glucose, DET currents were determined for pH 5.0 and 7.4 in 10 mM phosphate buffered saline (PBS) containing 100 mM NaCl. The DET current density obtained at pH 5.0 and 7.4 was 595 nA/cm² and 197 nA/cm², respectively. The electrode had 33% of the maximum current at pH 7.4.

Comparative Example 21 CDH from Myriococcum thermophilum—pH Profile of Glucose with Wild-Type Enzyme using Graphite Electrodes

CDH from Myriococcum thermophilum was found to oxidise many carbohydrates, glucose being one of them (Harreither et al., 2007, Electroanalysis 19: 172-180). From a pH profile measured with 5 mM cellobiose or lactose (FIG. 3A Harreither et al. 2007) a DET current at pH 7.5 can be seen with approx. 17% and 20%, respectively, of the value of peak maximum at pH 5. One could speculate that glucose could also be detected by this method, therefore a comparative measurement was performed using the same experimental conditions, enzyme and electrode preparation procedures (50 mM sodium citrate buffer, pH 4.0, 4.5, 5.0, 5.5, 6.5, 7.5; potential 400 mV vs. Ag|AgCl in 0.1 M KCl), exchanging the originally used 5 mM cellobiose or 5 mM lactose for 5 mM glucose. The results are given in FIG. 2.i and show a strong decrease of the detected current already at pH 6.5. At pH 7.5 no signal could be detected and therefore no value calculated as the response was within the electronic noise of the measurement (2 nA). The reason for this behaviour lies in the higher K_(M) value of M. thermophilum CDH for glucose (K_(M)=240 mM) than for cellobiose (K_(M)=0.027 mM) or lactose (K_(M)=0.055 mM, all data from Harreither et al. 2007) which reduces the obtained current at pH 7.5 below the limit of detection.

Example 22 Sequences

>M.thermophilum (SEQ ID NO: 1) mrtssrligalaaallpsalagnnvpntftdpdsgitfntwgldedspqt qggftfgvalpsdalttdasefigylkcarndesgwcgislggpmtnsll itawphedtvytslrfatgyampdvyegdaeitqvsssvnsthfslifrc knclqwshggssggastsggvlvlgwvqafddpgnptcpeqitlqqhdng mgiwgaqlntdaaspsytdwaaqatktvtgdcegptetsvvgvpvptgvs fdyivvgggaggipaadklseagksvlliekgfastantggtlgpewleg hdltrfdvpglcnqiwvdskgiacedtdqmagcvlgggtavnaglwfkpy sldwdylfpdgwkyndvqpainralsripgtdapstdgkryyqegfevls kglaaggwtsvtannapdkknrtfahapfmfaggerngplgtyfqtakkr nnfdvwlntsvkrviregghitgvevepfrdggyegivpvtkvtgrvils agtfgsakillrsgigpedqlevvaasekdgptmignsswinlpvgynld dhlntdtvishpdvvfydfyeawddpiesdknsylesrtgilaqaapnig pmfweeivgadgivrqlqwtarvegslgapnghtmtmsqylgrgatsrgr mtitpslttivsdvpylkdpndkeaviqgiinlqnalqnvanltwlfpns titpreyvesmvvspsnrrsnhwmgtnklgtddgrkggsavvdldtrvyg tdnlfvidasifpgvpttnptsyivvaaehassrilalpdlepvpkygqc ggrewtgsfvcadgstceyqnewysqcl >H.haematostroma (SEQ ID NO: 3) mgrlgslaklllavglnvqqcfgqngpptpytdsetgitfatwsggngla pwggltfgvalpenalttdateligylkcgsngtttdawcglsfggpmtn slllmawphedeiltsfrfasgytrpdlytgdakltqisstidkdhftli frcqnclawnqdgasgsastsagslilgwasalraptnagcpaeinfnfh nngqmiwgatldesaanpsysewaakatatvtgdcggatpttttttttsv ptatgipvptgtydyivvgagaggipladklseagksvlliekgppssgr wggtlkpewlkdtnltrfdvpglcnqiwvnsagvactdtdqmagcvlggg tavnaglwwkpynldwdynfprgwksrdmaaatrrvfsripgtdnpsmdg krylqqgfeilagglkaagwtevtandapnkknhtyshspfmfsggergg pmgtylvsasrrknfhlwtgtavkrvvrtgghitglevepfvnggytgvv nvtsitgrvvlsagafgsakillrsgigpedqleivksstdgptmisdss witlpvgynledhtntdtvvthpdvvfydfyeaghpnvtdkdlylnsrag ilaqaapnigpmfweeikgrdgvvrqlqwtarvegsagtpngyamtmsqy lgrgaksrgrmtitkalttvvstvpylqdkndveaviqgiknlqaalsnv knltwayppsnttvedfvnnmlvsytnrrsnhwigtnklgtddgrsrggs avvdlntkvygtdnlfvvdagifpghittnptsyiviaaeraserildlp paraqprfaqcggrtwtgsfqcaapytcqyrnerysqcr >C.attrobruneum (SEQ ID NO: 5) mrpssrfvgalaaaasflpsalaqnnaavtftdpdtgivfnswglangap qtqggftfgvalpsdalttdatefigylecasadnqgwcgvsmggpmtns llitawphednvytslrfatgyampdvysgdatitqisssinathfklif rcqnclqwthdgasggastsagvlvlgwvqafpspgnptcpdqitleqhn ngmgiwgavmdsnvanpsytewaaqatktveaecdgpsetdivgvpvptg ttfdyivvgggaggiptadklseagksvlliekgiastaehggtlgpewl egndltrfdvpglcnqiwvdskgiacedtdqmagcvlgggtavnaglwfk pysldwdylfpsgwkyrdiqaaigrvfsripgtdapstdgkryyqqgfdv lagglsaggwnkvtansspdkknrtfsnapfmfsggerggplatyltsak krsnfnlwlntsvkrviregghvtgvevepfrtggyqgivnvtaysgrvv lsagtfgsakillrggigpadqlevvkaskidgptmisnaswiplpvgyn lddhlntdtvithpdvafydfyeawntpieadknsylssrtgilaqaapn igpmmweeikgadgivrqlqwtarvegsfdtpngqamtisqylgrgater grmtitpslttvvedvpylkdpndkeaviqgivnlqnalknvagltwtyp nssitpreyvdnmvvspsnrranhwmgtakigtddgrlaggsavvdlntk vygtdnlfvvdasifpgtpttnpsayivtaaehasqrilglaapkpvgkw gqcggrqwtgsfqcvsgtkcevvnewysqcl >C.thermophilum (SEQ ID NO: 7) mkllsrvgatalaatlslkqcaaqmtegtytheatgitfktwtpsdgstf tfglalpgdaltndateyigllrcqitdpsspgycgishgqsgqmtqall lvawasedvvytsfryatgytlpelytgdakltqiassysgdsfevlfrc encfswdqngatgsvstsngalvlgyaasksgltgatcpdtaefgfhnng fgqwgavlegatsdsyeewaqlatitppttcdgngpgdkvcvpapedtyd ylvvgagaggitvadklseaghkvlliekgppstglwngtmkpewlegtd ltrfdvpglcnqiwydsagiactdtdqmagcvlgggtavnaglwwkphpa dwddnfphgwkssdladatervfsripgtwhpsqdgklyrqegfevisqg lanagwrevdanqepseknrtyshsvfmfsggerggplatylasaaqrsn fnlwvntsvrrairtgprvsgvelecladggfngtvnlkegggvifsaga fgsaklllrsgigpedqleivasskdgetfiskndwiklpvghnlidhln tdliithpdvvfydfyaawdnpitedkeaylnsrsgilaqaapnigplmw eevtpsdgitrqfqwtcrvegdssktnsthamtlsqylgrgvvsrgrmgi tsgltttvaehpylhndgdleaviqgiqnvvdalsqvpdlewvlpppntt veeyvnslivspanrranhwmgtakmglddgrsggsavvdlntkvygtdn lfvvdasifpgmstgnpsamivivaeqaaqrilslry >S.bisbyi (SEQ ID NO: 9) mlfklsnwllalalfvgnvvaqlegptpytdpdtgivfqswvnpagtlkf gytypanaatvaatefigflecqgagwcsvslggsmlnkplvvaypsgde vlaslkwatgyanpepyggnhklsqisssvtsagfrvvyrcegclawnyq gieggsptngasmpigwaysassvlngdcvdntvliqhdtfgnygfvpde sslrteyndwtelptrvvrgdcggstttssvpsstappqgtgipvptgas ydyivvgsgaggipiadklteagkkvlliekgppssgrydgklkptwleg tnltrfdvpglcnqiwvdsagiacrdtdqmagcvlgggtavnaglwwkpn pidwdynfpsgwkssemigatnrvfsriggttvpsqdgktyyqqgfnvls sglkaagwtsvslnnapaqrnrtygagpfmfsggerggplatylatakkr gnfdlwtntqvkrvirqgghvtgvevenyngdgykgtvkvtpvsgrvvls agtfgsaklllrsgigpkdqlaivknstdgptmaserdwinlpvgynled htntdivishpdvvhydfyeawtasiesdktaylgkrsgilaqaapnigp lffdevrgadnivrsiqytarvegnsvvpngkamvisqylgrgavsrgrm tisqglntivstapylsnvndleaviksleniansltskvknlkiewpas gtsirdhytnmpldpatrranhwigtnkigtkngrltggdsvvdlntkvy gtdnlfvvdasifpgmvttnpsayiviaaehaaskilslptakaaakyeq cggleyngnfqcasgltctwlndyywqct >N.crassa (SEQ ID NO: 11) MRTTSAFLSGLAAVASLLSPAFAQTAPKTFTHPDTGIVFNTWSASDSQTK GGFTVGMALPSNALTTDATEFIGYLECSSAKNGANSGWCGVSLRGAMTNN LLITAWPSDGEVYTNLMFATGYAMPKNYAGDAKITQIASSVNATHFTLVF RCQNCLSWDQDGVTGGISTSNKGAQLGWVQAFPSPGNPTCPTQITLSQHD NGMGQWGAAFDSNIANPSYTAWAAKATKTVTGTCSGPVTTSIAATPVPTG VSFDYIVVGGGAGGIPVADKLSESGKSVLLIEKGFASTGEHGGTLKPEWL NNTSLTRFDVPGLCNQIWKDSDGIACSDTDQMAGCVLGGGTAINAGLWYK PYTKDWDYLFPSGWKGSDIAGATSRALSRIPGTTTPSQDGKRYLQQGFEV LANGLKASGWKEVDSLKDSEQKNRTFSHTSYMYINGERGGPLATYLVSAK KRSNFKLWLNTAVKRVIREGGHITGVEVEAFRNGGYSGIIPVTNTTGRVV LSAGTFGSAKILLRSGIGPKDQLEVVKASADGPTMVSNSSWIDLPVGHNL VDHTNTDTVIQHNNVTFYDFYKAWDNPNTTDMNLYLNGRSGIFAQAAPNI GPLFWEEITGADGIVRQLHWTARVEGSFETPDGYAMTMSQYLGRGATSRG RMTLSPTLNTVVSDLPYLKDPNDKAAVVQGIVNLQKALANVKGLTWAYPS ANQTAADFVDKQPVTYQSRRSNHWMGTNKMGTDDGRSGGTAVVDTNTRVY GTDNLYVVDASIFPGVPTTNPTAYIVVAAEHAAAKILAQPANEAVPKWGW CGGPTYTGSQTCQAPYKCEKQNDWYWQCV >M.thermophilum (SEQ ID NO: 2) atgaggacctcctctcgtttaatcggagcccttgcggcggcacttttgcc gtctgcccttgcccagaacaatgtcccgaatacttttaccgaccctgact cgggcatcaccttcaacacgtggggtctcgacgaggattctccccagact cagggcggtttcaccttcggcgttgccctgccctctgatgccctcacaac cgacgcctcggaatttatcggttacttgaaatgcgcaaggaatgatgaga gcggttggtgtggcatttcccttggcgggcctatgaccaactcgctcctc atcacagcctggccgcacgaggacacggtctacaccagtcttcggttcgc gaccggttacgccatgccggatgtctacgagggggacgccgagattaccc aggtctcttcctctgttaattcgacgcacttcagtctcatcttcaggtgc aagaactgcctgcaatggagccacggcggctcctccggcggcgcctctac ctcgggcggcgtgttggtactcggctgggttcaggcattcgacgatcccg gcaatccaacctgccccgagcagatcacactccagcagcacgacaacggc atgggtatctggggtgcccagctcaacacggatgctgccagcccgtccta cactgactgggccgcccaggctaccaagaccgtcaccggtgactgcgagg gccccaccgagacttctgtcgtcggcgtccccgttccgacgggtgtctcg ttcgattatattgttgtcggcggcggcgccgggggcatccccgcagctga caagctcagcgaggccggcaagagtgtgttgctcatcgagaagggctttg cttcgaccgcaaacaccggaggtactctcggccctgaatggcttgagggc catgatctgacccgcttcgacgtgccgggtctgtgcaaccagatctgggt cgattccaaggggatcgcttgcgaggataccgaccagatggctggctgtg ttctcggcggcggcaccgccgtgaatgctggcctgtggttcaagccctac tcgctcgactgggactacctcttccccgatggttggaagtacaatgacgt ccagcctgccatcaaccgcgccctctcgcgcatcccaggcaccgacgccc cttctaccgacggaaagcgctactaccaggagggttttgaggtcctctcc aagggcctggccgccggcggctggacctcagtcacggccaataatgcgcc cgacaagaagaaccgcaccttcgcccatgctcccttcatgtttgccggcg gcgagcgcaatggccctctgggtacctacttccagactgccaagaagcgc aacaatttcgatgtctggctcaacacgtcggtcaagcgcgtcatccgtga gggtggccacatcaccggcgtcgaggtcgagccgttccgtgacggtggtt acgagggcattgtccccgtcaccaaggttaccggccgcgttatcctgtct gccggcaccttcggcagtgcaaagattctgttaaggagcggtattggccc ggaagatcagctagaagttgtcgcggcctccgagaaggacggccctacca tgatcggcaactcgtcctggatcaacctgcctgtcgggtacaacctcgat gaccatctcaacaccgacacagtcatctcccaccccgatgtcgtgttcta cgacttttacgaggcgtgggatgatcccatcgagtctgacaagaatagct atctcgaatcgcgtacgggcatcctcgcccaagccgctcccaacattggc cctatgttctgggaagagatcgtgggcgcggacggcatcgttcgccagct ccagtggactgcccgtgtcgagggtagcctgggcgctcccaacggccaca ctatgaccatgtcgcagtaccttggccgtggtgccacctcacgcggccgc atgaccatcaccccgtctctgacgactatcgtctcagacgtgccttacct caaagaccccaacgacaaggaggctgtcatccaaggcatcatcaacctgc agaacgcccttcagaacgtcgccaacctgacttggctcttccccaactct accattacgccgcgcgaatacgttgagagcatggtcgtctccccgagcaa ccggcggtccaaccactggatgggcaccaacaagctcggtaccgacgacg ggcggaagggtggctccgctgtcgtcgacctcgacaccagggtctacggt actgacaacctcttcgtcatcgacgcctccatcttccccggcgtgcccac cacgaatcctacttcgtacatcgtggtagcggcagagcacgcttcgtccc gcatcctcgccctgcccgacctcgagcccgtccccaagtacggccagtgt ggcggtcgcgaatggaccggtagcttcgtctgcgccgatggttccacgtg cgagtaccagaatgagtggtactcgcagtgcttgtga >H.haematostroma (SEQ ID NO: 4) atgggtcgcctaggctctctcgcgaagttgcttctcgcagtcggcttgaa tgttcagcaatgcttcgggcaaaacggacccccgaccccctacactgata gtgagaccggtatcactttcgccacctggtccggcggaaacggcttagca ccctggggcggcttgactttcggtgttgcgttacctgaaaatgccctgac caccgacgctaccgagctgattggatacctgaaatgcggttccaatggca caaccacagatgcgtggtgtggtctgtcgtttgggggcccgatgactaac agcctccttctcatggcctggccgcacgaagacgagatcttgacatcatt ccgttttgccagtggatataccagaccagacctatacaccggcgatgcca aattaacgcagatatcatccaccatcgataaagatcactttactctaatt ttcaggtgccagaactgtctagcgtggaaccaagacggcgcgtctggttc cgcttcaactagtgccggctccttgatattaggctgggccagtgcgcttc gggccccgacgaatgcaggctgtccggctgaaatcaacttcaacttccac aacaatggccagatgatatggggcgctacattagacgagagcgccgcaaa cccatcatattcggaatgggctgccaaagccaccgctacggttaccggtg actgcggcggtgcaacccctacgaccactactaccaccaccacgtccgtc cctaccgccacaggtatcccagtgccaactggcacctacgactatattgt agttggtgcgggtgctggcggaatacctttggccgacaagctgagcgagg ctggaaagagtgtgttactgatcgaaaaggggccgccatcatcgggacga tggggtggcaccctcaagccagagtggttgaaggacaccaacttgacacg gtttgacgtccctggcctgtgcaatcagatctgggtcaactctgcaggcg tcgcttgtactgacacagaccaaatggccggttgcgttcttggtggtggt acagctgtcaacgctggcctatggtggaagccctacaacctcgactggga ttataacttcccacgcggatggaagtccagggatatggccgctgcaacca ggagagtcttctctcgcattcccggtacagataatccctcaatggatggc aagcggtatttacagcaaggcttcgaaatcctcgctggtggcttgaaagc cgctggatggaccgaggttaccgcgaatgacgcacccaataagaagaacc acacctactcacactcgccgttcatgttctccggcggcgaacggggtggc ccaatgggcacctacctggtatcggccagtagacgtaagaatttccatct atggacgggaacagcagtgaagagggttgttcgcacaggcggccatatca ccggtctggaggtcgagcccttcgtaaacggcggttataccggtgttgtc aacgtcacctcgattactggtcgggtcgtcttgtctgctggtgcgttcgg gtcggctaagatattactgaggagcggcatcggacctgaggatcagttgg agattgtcaagtcatcaaccgatggcccgaccatgatttccgattcttct tggattacgctacccgtcggttataatctagaggatcacacaaacaccga cacggtcgttacgcatcctgacgtcgtattttacgacttctacgaggctg gacatcctaatgttaccgacaaggacttgtatctcaactcacgggccgga atccttgctcaagcagcgcctaatatcggcccaatgttctgggaagagat taagggtagggacggcgtcgttagacagctccagtggacagccagagttg aaggaagtgccggtacaccgaatgggtacgccatgacaatgagccaatac cttggacgaggcgctaagtcgaggggccgaatgactatcacgaaggcgtt gacgaccgtcgtttctacagtaccttacctacaggataagaacgacgtgg aagcagtcatccagggaatcaagaaccttcaagcagcactttcgaacgtg aagaatctcacatgggcctacccaccatctaatacgacggtggaggactt tgttaacaacatgctggtttcatacactaataggcgttccaaccactgga ttgggaccaacaagctcggaaccgatgatggccgatcgcgcggaggttca gctgtcgtggacctcaacactaaggtatacggcaccgacaacctgttcgt cgttgacgcaggaatattccccggtcatattaccacgaacccgacttcgt atatcgtgatcgccgctgagcgcgcttctgagaggatcctcgaccttccc ccggctagagcacaaccgcgcttcgcgcagtgcggcgggcgaacgtggac gggtagcttccagtgtgcagcgccgtacacttgtcagtacaggaatgagc ggtattcccagtgccggtaa >C.attrobruneum (SEQ ID NO: 6) atgaggccctcctctcggtttgttggtgccctggcggcggcggcgtcgtt cctgccgtctgcccttgcccagaacaatgctgcagtcaccttcactgacc cggacaccggcatcgtcttcaactcctggggtcttgccaatggagcacca cagactcagggaggcttcacctttggtgtcgctctgccctctgatgcgct cacgaccgatgctaccgagttcattggttatttggaatgtgcctccgcgg acaaccagggctggtgcggtgtctcgatgggcggccccatgaccaactcg cttcttatcaccgcctggccgcacgaggacaacgtctacacctccctccg gtttgcaacaggatacgccatgccggatgtctactcgggagacgccacca tcacgcagatctcgtcgagcatcaacgcgacccacttcaagctcatcttc aggtgccagaactgcctgcaatggacccacgacggcgcttccggtggcgc ctccacgtctgccggtgttctggtcctcggctgggtccaggctttccctt cccctggcaacccgacgtgcccggaccagatcacgctcgagcagcacaac aacggcatgggcatctggggtgcggtgatggactccaacgtcgccaaccc gtcctacacagagtgggccgcgcaggccaccaagacggtcgaggccgagt gcgacggcccgagtgagacggatattgtcggcgtgcccgtgccgaccggc accaccttcgactacatcgtcgtgggcggcggtgccggcggtatccccac tgccgacaagctcagcgaggccggcaagagtgtgctgctgattgagaagg gcatcgcctcgactgctgagcacggcggcactctcggacccgagtggctc gagggcaacgacctgacgcggttcgacgtgcccggtctttgcaaccagat ctgggttgactccaagggcatcgcctgcgaggacaccgaccagatggccg gttgcgtcctcggcggcggcacggccgtcaacgccggcctctggttcaag ccctactcgctcgactgggactacctcttcccaagcggctggaagtaccg cgacatccaggccgccatcggcagggtgttctcgcgcatcccgggcactg acgcgccctcgaccgacggcaagcgctactaccagcagggcttcgacgtg ctcgcgggcggcctgagtgccggcggctggaacaaggtcacggccaactc gtctccagacaagaagaaccgcaccttctcgaacgcgcctttcatgttct cgggcggcgagcgcggcgggcccctggccacttatctcaccagcgccaag aagcgcagcaacttcaacctgtggctcaacacgtcggtcaagcgcgtcat ccgtgagggcggccacgtcacaggtgtcgaggtcgagcctttccggacgg gcgggtaccagggtatcgtgaacgttaccgccgtttcgggccgtgtcgtc ctgtcggctggtaccttcggcagtgccaagattctgctcagaggcggtat tggcccagcggatcagctcgaggttgtcaaggcgtcgaagatcgacgggc cgaccatgatcagcaatgcgtcttggattcctctgcctgttgggtacaac ctggatgaccatctcaacactgacactgtcattacccaccccgacgttgc cttctacgacttctacgaggcatggaacacgcccattgaggcggacaaga acagctacctgagcagccgcactggtatcctcgctcaggccgcgcccaac attggcccaatgatgtgggaggaaatcaagggtgccgacggtatcgtccg ccagctgcaatggaccgcccgtgtcgagggtagctttgacacgcctaacg ggcaggcgatgaccatctcgcagtacctcggccgcggcgcgacctcgcgc ggccgtatgaccatcaccccttcgctgacgaccgtcgtctcggacgtgcc gtacctcaaggacccgaacgataaggaggccgtcatccagggcatcgtca acctgcagaacgccctcaaaaacgtcgccggcctgacctggacctacccc aactcgagcatcacaccgcgcgaatacgtcgataatatggtagtctcccc tagcaaccggcgcgcaaaccactggatgggcacggccaaaatcggcaccg acgacggccgcctggccggcggctccgccgtcgtggacttgaacaccaag gtctacggcaccgacaacctctttgtcgtggacgcgtccatcttccccgg cacgcccaccaccaatccctcggcgtacatcgtcacggctgcggagcatg cttcgcagaggatcttggggttggctgcgccgaagccggttgggaaatgg ggccagtgtggcgggcggcagtggacagggagcttccagtgcgtgagtgg gacaaagtgtgaggtggtgaatgagtggtactcgcagtgcttgtag >C.thermophilum (SEQ ID NO: 8) atgaagcttctcagccgcgttggggccaccgccctagcggcgacgttgtc cctgaaacaatgtgcagctcagatgaccgaagggacgtacacccatgagg ctaccggtatcacgttcaagacatggactccttccgacggctcgactttc actttcggcttggccctccctggggacgcgctgacaaatgatgccaccga gtacattggtctcctgcgttgccaaatcaccgatccctcttcgcccggct actgtggcatctcccacggccagtccggccagatgacgcaggcgctgctg ctggtcgcttgggccagcgaggatgtcgtctacacgtcgttccgctacgc caccggctacacactccccgagctctacacgggcgacgccaagctgaccc agatcgcctcctcggtcagcggggacagcttcgaggtgctgttccgctgc gagaactgcttctcctgggaccagaacggcgccacgggcagtgtctcgac cagcaacggcgccctggttctcggctacgctgcctcgaagagtggtttga cgggcgccacgtgcccggacacggccgagtttggcttccacaacaatggt ttcggacagtggggtgcagtgctcgagggtgcgacctcggactcgtatga ggagtgggctcagctggccactatcacgcccccgaccacctgcgatggca acggccctggcgacaaggtgtgcgttccggctcccgaagacacgtatgat tacatcgttgtcggcgccggcgccggcggcatcacggtcgccgacaagct cagcgaggccggccacaaggtcctccttatcgagaagggtcctccgtcga ccggcctgtggaacgggaccatgaagcccgagtggctcgagggtaccgac ctcacccgcttcgacgtccccggtctgtgcaaccagatctgggtcgactc tgccggcattgcctgcaccgataccgaccagatggcgggctgcgttctcg gcggtggcaccgctgtcaatgctggtctgtggtggaagccccaccccgct gactgggacgacaacttccctcatggctggaagtcgagcgatctcgcgga tgcgaccgagcgtgtcttcagccgcattcccggcacgtggcacccgtcgc aggatggcaaactgtaccgccaggagggcttcgaggtcatcagccagggc ctggccaacgccggctggagggaagtcgacgccaaccaggagcccagcga gaagaaccgcacgtattcccacagtgtgttcatgttctcgggcggtgagc gcggcggccccctggcgacgtacctcgcctcggctgcccagcgcagcaac ttcaacttgtgggtcaacacttcggtccggagggccatccgcaccggccc cagggtcagtggcgtcgaactcgagtgccttgcggacggcggcttcaacg gtactgtcaacctgaaggagggtggtggtgtcatcttttcggctggcgct ttcggctcggccaagctgctccttcgcagcggcatcggtcctgaggacca gctcgagattgtggcgagctccaaggacggcgagaccttcatttccaaga atgattggatcaagctccccgtcggccataacctgatcgatcatctcaac accgacctcattattactcacccggatgtcgttttctatgacttctacgc ggcttgggacaatcccatcaccgaggacaaggaggcctacctgaactcgc ggtccggcattctcgcccaagcggcgcccaacatcggccctctgatgtgg gaggaagtcacgccatccgacggcatcacccgccagttccagtggacatg ccgtgttgagggcgacagctccaagaccaactcgacccacgccatgaccc tcagccagtatctcggccgtggcgtcgtctcgcgcggccggatgggcatc acttccgggctgaccacgacggtggccgagcacccgtacctgcacaacga cggcgacctggaggcggtgatccagggtatccagaacgtggtggacgcgc tcagccaggtgcccgacctcgagtgggtgctcccgccgcccaacacgacg gtggaggaatacgtcaacagcctgatcgtgtctccggctaaccgccgggc caaccactggatgggcacggccaagatgggcctcgatgacggccgctcgg gcggctccgcggtcgtcgacctcaacacaaaggtgtatggcaccgacaac ctgtttgtcgtcgacgcctccatcttccctggcatgtcgacgggcaaccc gtcggctatgatcgtcatcgtggccgagcaggcggcccagcgcatcctgt ccctgcggtattag >S.bisbyi (SEQ ID NO: 10) atgctgttcaagctctcaaattggttgctagcgcttgcgctctttgttgg caatgtcgttgctcaactcgaggggcctaccccgtacacggatccagata ccggcattgtctttcagtcctgggtcaatccagcagggaccctgaagttt ggttacacttaccccgcaaatgctgctacggttgccgccacggaatttat cggtttcctggaatgccaaggggctggatggtgtagcgtctcactcggtg gctccatgcttaacaagccgcttgttgttgcctaccctagtggcgatgaa gtcctcgcttctttgaagtgggccacaggctacgcgaatccagagcctta cggcggcaatcacaagctgtcccagatcagctcgtccgtcacctctgctg gcttcagggtcgtctatcgatgtgagggatgtctcgcctggaactaccag ggaattgagggagggagccccaccaatggtgcgtccatgcctatcggttg ggcttacagcgcaagttctgtactcaacggggattgtgtggataacactg ttctcattcaacatgacacctttggcaattatggcttcgtacctgatgaa tcatctcttcgcacggagtacaatgactggacggagcttccgaccagggt tgtcaggggagactgcggcggttccacaactacctcttcggtgccctcct caacggcgcctcctcaaggtactggcataccggttcctactggcgcaagc tatgactacatagttgttggctcgggtgctggaggtattcccattgcgga taagcttaccgaggctggcaaaaaggttttgttgattgagaagggaccac cctcttctggtcgctacgatggaaagctaaagccgacgtggcttgaggga actaatctcacccgattcgatgtgcctggcctctgcaaccaaatatgggt cgactccgctggcattgcatgccgtgataccgatcagatggctggttgtg ttcttggcggtggtactgctgtcaatgcaggtctatggtggaagcctaac cctattgattgggactataatttcccttcaggctggaagtcaagcgagat gataggcgcgacaaaccgtgtcttttcacgtattggtggtactactgttc cttcgcaggacggaaagacctactatcagcaaggtttcaacgttctttcc agcggtctcaaggctgcgggctggacatctgttagcctgaataacgcccc tgcgcaaaggaaccgcacctatggtgctggccctttcatgttctctggtg gagagcgaggtggacctttggccacctacctggccactgccaagaagaga ggaaacttcgacctctggacgaatacccaagttaagcgtgtaattcgaca gggaggtcatgttactggagtggaggtcgaaaactataacggtgatgggt acaagggcactgtcaaggtgactcctgtatctgggcgagttgtcctatct gctggtacctttggcagtgctaagcttttgctccgaagcggtatcggtcc caaggatcaactagctattgtcaagaactcgactgatggccctactatgg cttccgagagggactggattaatcttcccgttggctacaacttggaggac catactaacaccgacattgtcatctcccatccagatgtggtccattacga cttctatgaggcttggacagcgtcaatcgagtctgacaagactgcttatt tgggcaagcgttctggcatcctcgctcaagccgcccccaacatcgggcct ctcttctttgacgaagttcgcggtgctgacaacattgtccgctcaattca gtacactgctcgtgtggagggcaacagtgtggtccctaatggcaaggcca tggtgatcagccagtaccttggtcgtggcgctgtttccaggggtcgaatg accatctctcaaggtctcaatacgattgtttccaccgctccatacctctc aaacgtcaatgatctcgaggccgtcattaagagccttgagaacatagcga acagcttgacgtcaaaggttaaaaacctcaagattgaatggcctgcctct ggtacatccattcgcgatcacgtcacgaatatgcctctcgacccggccac ccgccgagcgaatcattggattggcactaacaagatcggaaccaagaatg gtcgactgacaggtggtgattccgtcgttgatttgaacactaaggtctat ggtacagacaatctgtttgtggtcgatgcttctattttccctggcatggt tacgaccaacccctcggcctacattgtaattgccgctgagcatgctgcat cgaagattctgagcctacctactgctaaggctgccgcgaagtacgaacaa tgtggtggccttgaatataatggtaactttcagtgtgcgtctggattaac ctgcacttggttaaacgactactactggcagtgtacttaa >N.crassa (SEQ ID NO: 12) atgaggaccacctcggcctttctcagcggcctggcggcggtggcttcatt gctgtcgcccgccttcgcccaaaccgctcccaagaccttcactcatcctg ataccggcattgtcttcaacacatggagtgcttccgattcccagaccaaa ggtggcttcactgttggtatggctctgccgtcaaatgctcttactaccga cgcgactgaattcatcggttatctggaatgctcctccgccaagaatggtg ccaatagcggttggtgcggtgtttctctcagaggcgccatgaccaacaat ctactcattaccgcctggccttctgacggagaagtctacaccaatctcat gttcgccacgggttacgccatgcccaagaactacgctggtgacgccaaga tcacccagatcgcgtccagcgtgaacgctacccacttcacccttgtcttt aggtgccagaactgtttgtcatgggaccaagacggtgtcaccggcggcat ttctaccagcaataagggggcccagctcggttgggtccaggcgttcccct ctcccggcaacccgacttgccctacccagatcactctcagtcagcatgac aacggtatgggccagtggggagctgcctttgacagcaacattgccaatcc ctcttatactgcatgggctgccaaggccaccaagaccgttaccggtactt gcagtggtccagtcacgaccagtattgccgccactcctgttcccactggc gtttcttttgactacattgtcgttggtggtggtgccggtggtattcccgt cgctgacaagctcagcgagtccggtaagagcgtgctgctcatcgagaagg gtttcgcttccactggtgagcatggtggtactctgaagcccgagtggctg aataatacatcccttactcgcttcgatgttcccggtctttgcaaccagat ctggaaagactcggatggcattgcctgctccgataccgatcagatggccg gctgcgtgctcggcggtggtaccgccatcaacgccggtctctggtacaag ccctacaccaaggactgggactacctcttcccctctggctggaagggcag cgatatcgccggtgctaccagcagagccctctcccgcattccgggtacca ccactccttctcaggatggaaagcgctaccttcagcagggtttcgaggtt cttgccaacggcctcaaggcgagcggctggaaggaggtcgattccctcaa ggacagcgagcagaagaaccgcactttctcccacacctcatacatgtaca tcaatggcgagcgtggcggtcctctagcgacttacctcgtcagcgccaag aagcgcagcaacttcaagctgtggctcaacaccgctgtcaagcgcgtcat ccgtgagggcggccacattaccggtgtggaggttgaggccttccgcaacg gcggctactccggaatcatccccgtcaccaacaccaccggccgcgtcgtt ctttccgccggcaccttcggcagcgccaagatccttctccgttccggcat tggccccaaggaccagctcgaggtggtcaaggcctccgccgacggcccta ccatggtcagcaactcgtcctggattgacctccccgtcggccacaacctg gttgaccacaccaacaccgacaccgtcatccagcacaacaacgtgacctt ctacgacttttacaaggcttgggacaaccccaacacgaccgacatgaacc tgtacctcaatgggcgctccggcatcttcgcccaggccgcgcccaacatt ggccccttgttctgggaggagatcacgggcgccgacggcatcgtccgtca gctgcactggaccgcccgcgtcgagggcagcttcgagacccccgacggct acgccatgaccatgagccagtaccttggccgtggcgccacctcgcgcggc cgcatgaccctcagccctaccctcaacaccgtcgtgtctgacctcccgta cctcaaggaccccaacgacaaggccgctgtcgttcagggtatcgtcaacc tccagaaggctctcgccaacgtcaagggtctcacctgggcttaccctagc gccaaccagacggctgctgattttgttgacaagcaacccgtaacctacca atcccgccgctccaaccactggatgggcaccaacaagatgggcaccgacg acggccgcagcggcggcaccgcagtcgtcgacaccaacacgcgcgtctat ggcaccgacaacctgtacgtggtggacgcctcgattttccccggtgtgcc gaccaccaaccctaccgcctacattgtcgtcgccgctgagcatgccgcgg ccaaaatcctggcgcaacccgccaacgaggccgttcccaagtggggctgg tgcggcgggccgacgtatactggcagccagacgtgccaggcgccatataa gtgcgagaagcagaatgattggtattggcagtgtgtgtag 

The invention claimed is:
 1. A cellobiose dehydrogenase (CDH) comprising a heam domain and a flavin domain, comprising an amino acid sequence that is at least 80% identical to amino acids 22 to 828 of SEQ ID NO: 1, and comprising at least amino acid substitutions in amino acids D181 and D198 of SEQ ID NO: 1, wherein each of the said substitutions is an exchange to a neutral or alkaline amino acid.
 2. The modified cellobiose dehydrogenase of claim 1, further defined as comprising an amino acid sequence that is at least 85% identical to amino acids 22 to 828 of SEQ ID NO:
 1. 3. The modified cellobiose dehydrogenase of claim 2, further defined as comprising an amino acid sequence that is at least 90% identical to amino acids 22 to 828 of SEQ ID NO:
 1. 4. The modified cellobiose dehydrogenase of claim 3, further defined as comprising an amino acid sequence that is at least 95% identical too amino acids 22 to 828 of SEQ ID NO:
 1. 5. The modified cellobiose dehydrogenase of claim 1, comprising at least one further modification in any one of amino acids 90-100, 115-124, 172-180 182-197, and 199-203 of SEQ ID NO:
 1. 6. The modified cellobiose dehydrogenase of claim 1, comprising at least one further modification of any one of amino acids 318, 325, 326, 328, 568, 571, 574, 575, 624, 654, 663, 702, 709, 712, and 717 of SEQ ID NO:
 1. 7. The modified cellobiose dehydrogenase of claim 1, comprising a further modification increasing positive charge in amino acids 172-203 and/or decreasing a negative charge of amino acids 565-577 of SEQ ID NO: 1, or any combination thereof.
 8. The modified cellobiose dehydrogenase of claim 7, wherein the modification is a decrease of a negative charge of amino acids 568 and/or 571 and/or 574 of SEQ ID NO: 1, or any combination thereof.
 9. The modified cellobiose dehydrogenase of claim 1, wherein the modification comprises D181K or D181R.
 10. A nucleic acid molecule encoding a cellobiose dehydrogenase of claim 1 comprising: a nucleotide sequence of SEQ ID NOs: 4, 6, 8, 10 or 12; or the open reading frame of SEQ ID NOs: 4, 6, 8, 10 or 12; or a nucleotide sequence with at least 50% identity to SEQ ID NOs: 2, 33, 4, 6, 8, 10 or 12 or the open reading frame of SEQ ID NOs: 2, 4, 6, 8, 10 or 12, further comprising a nucleotide mutation, substitution, deletion or insertion; or a nucleotide sequence that hybridizes with any one of SEQ ID NOs: 2, 33, 4, 6, 8, 10 or 12 under stringent conditions.
 11. The nucleic acid of claim 10, further defined as comprising a nucleotide sequence with at least 50% identity to SEQ ID NOs: 2, 33, 4, 6, 8, 10 or 12 or the open reading frame of SEQ ID NOs: 2, 33, 4, 6, 8, 10 or
 12. 12. The nucleic acid of claim 10, further defined as comprising a nucleotide sequence with at least 65% identity to SEQ ID NOs: 2, 33, 4, 6, 8, 10 or 12 or the open reading frame of SEQ ID NOs: 2, 33, 4, 6, 8, 10 or
 12. 13. The nucleic acid of claim 10, further defined as comprising a nucleotide sequence with at least 80% identity to SEQ ID NOs: 2, 4, 6, 8, 10 or 12 or the open reading frame of SEQ ID NOs: 2, 33, 4, 6, 8, 10 or
 12. 14. The nucleic acid of claim 10, further defined as comprising a nucleotide sequence with at least 95% identity to SEQ ID NOs: 2, 4, 6, 8, 10 or 12 or the open reading frame of SEQ ID NOs: 2, 33, 4, 6, 8, 10 or
 12. 15. The nucleic acid of claim 10, further defined as comprising a nucleotide sequence with at least 99% identity to SEQ ID NOs: 2, 33, 4, 6, 8, 10 or 12 or the open reading frame of SEQ ID NOs: 2, 33, 4, 6, 8, 10 or
 12. 16. The nucleic acid of claim 10, further defined as comprising a nucleotide sequence of SEQ ID NOs: 2, 33, 4, 6, 8, 10 or 12 or the open reading frame of SEQ ID NOs: 2, 33, 4, 6, 8, 10 or
 12. 17. An electrode comprising an immobilized cellobiose dehydrogenase of claim 1 and having at least 10% glucose, lactose or cellobiose oxidizing activity at a pH of 7.4 as compared to maximal activity at a lower pH as determined by a cyt c assay.
 18. The electrode of claim 17, further defined as comprising an immobilized cellobiose dehydrogenase and having at least 14% glucose, lactose or cellobiose oxidizing activity at a pH of 7.4 as compared to maximal activity at a lower pH as determined by the cyt c assay.
 19. The electrode of claim 17, further defined as comprising an immobilized cellobiose dehydrogenase and having at least 20% glucose, lactose or cellobiose oxidizing activity at a pH of 7.4 as compared to maximal activity at a lower pH as determined by the cyt c assay.
 20. The electrode of claim 17, further defined as comprising an immobilized cellobiose dehydrogenase and having at least 30% glucose, lactose or cellobiose oxidizing activity at a pH of 7.4 as compared to maximal activity at a lower pH as determined by the cyt c assay.
 21. The electrode of claim 17, wherein the glucose oxidation activity at pH 7.4 is at least 0.5 U/mg cellobiose dehydrogenase.
 22. The electrode of claim 17, wherein the cellobiose dehydrogenase has a Km value for a glucose oxidation reaction at pH 7.4 of below 1M.
 23. The electrode of claim 17, wherein the cellobiose dehydrogenase is immobilized by adsorption or complex formation and/or wherein the immobilized cellobiose dehydrogenase is cross-linked to increase stability or activity.
 24. The electrode of claim 23, wherein the cellobiose dehydrogenase is immobilized by complex formation via an additional complexing linker, covalent or ionic linkage and/or wherein the immobilized cellobiose dehydrogenase is cross-linked by at least one bifunctional agent.
 25. An electrochemical cell comprising an electrode of claim 17 as an anodic element and a cathodic element.
 26. The electrochemical cell of claim 25, comprising a glucose containing solution as anodic fluid.
 27. The electrochemical cell of claim 25, further defined as comprising a solution of at least pH 6.0 as anodic fluid.
 28. The electrochemical cell of claim 27, further defined as comprising a solution of at least pH 6.5 as anodic fluid.
 29. The electrochemical cell of claim 28, further defined as comprising a solution of at least pH 7.2 as anodic fluid.
 30. A method of detecting and/or quantifying glucose in a sample comprising: providing a cellobiose dehydrogenase of claim 1; contacting a fluid sample having a pH of at least 6.5 with the cellobiose dehydrogenase; and detecting an oxidation, if any, of glucose in the sample by the cellobiose dehydrogenase.
 31. The method of claim 30, wherein the oxidation is detected electrochemically.
 32. The method of claim 31, wherein the oxidation is detected with an immobilized cellobiose dehydrogenase on an electrode.
 33. The method of claim 30, wherein the cellobiose dehydrogenase has at least 10% glucose, lactose or cellobiose oxidizing activity at a pH of 7.4 as compared to maximal activity at a lower pH as determined by a cyt c assay.
 34. The method of claim 33, wherein the cellobiose dehydrogenase has at least 20% glucose, lactose or cellobiose oxidizing activity at a pH of 7.4 as compared to maximal activity at a lower pH as determined by a cyt c assay.
 35. The method of claim 34, wherein the cellobiose dehydrogenase has at least 30% glucose, lactose or cellobiose oxidizing activity at a pH of 7.4 as compared to maximal activity at a lower pH as determined by a cyt c assay.
 36. The modified cellobiose dehydrogenase of claim 1 further comprising a mutation selected from D568S and/or E571S and/or D547S. 